Downward and Upward Communication Essay Example

Descending and Upward Communication Essay It is passing data to the subordinate. It expands proficiency by synchronizing hierarchical methodology and can guarantee that all are progressing in the direction of a similar objective. Descending Communication is the methods by which objectives are transmitted and impact is applied on representatives. It flow’s from the top level administration to low level administration through the center level administration. Model: When your manager imparts data to you, it’s descending correspondence, in light of the fact that your chief, as your director, is speaking with you as a worker. Kinds of Downward correspondence incorporates: * Job depiction * Appraisals or assessment * Organizational approach * Organizational framework Downward Communication helps in performing following administrative capacities: * Directing * Motivating * Controlling * Co-ordinating Barriers in Downward Communication: * Often single direction * Mistrust * Status nervousness * Difference in qualities and discernment. Upward correspondence : It starts from lower level of business chain of importance. This correspondence center that everyone is fit for creating musings and thoughts coming about into authoritative advancement. It builds inspiration and cause representatives to feel esteemed. It is the progression of correspondence which starts from low level administration to significant level administration through center level administration. Upward Communication is the methods by which supervisors gather from representatives the information expected to settle on trustworthy choices. Model: when you give your manager criticism about another framework or supporter, it’s upward correspondence. Kinds of upward correspondence incorporates : * Suggestion plans * Feedback gathering or overview * Grievance Procedure * Employees Manager conversation. Upward Communication helps in performing following administrative capacities: * Reporting * Decision making Barriers in Upward Communication: * Delay in dynamic * Loss of data * Fear of distortion * Communicating just the positive out comes. We will compose a custom exposition test on Downward and Upward Communication explicitly for you for just $16.38 $13.9/page Request now We will compose a custom paper test on Downward and Upward Communication explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer We will compose a custom paper test on Downward and Upward Communication explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer

The Fall of Rome

The Fall of Rome From its initial days as a government, through the Republic and the Roman Empire, Rome kept going a thousand years ... or on the other hand two. The individuals who settle on two centuries date the Fall of Rome to 1453 when the Ottoman Turks took Byzantium (Constantinople). The individuals who choose one thousand years, concur with Roman history specialist Edward Gibbon. Edward Gibbon dated the Fall to September 4, A.D. 476 when a supposed brute named Odoacer (a Germanic chief in the Roman armed force), removed the last western Roman ruler, Romulus Augustulus, who was presumably incompletely of Germanic family line. Odoacer considered Romulus so irrelevant a danger he didnt even trouble to kill him, yet sent him into retirement.* The Roman Empire Lasted Beyond the Fall The Byzantine Emperor versus the Western Emperor:Â At the hour of the overthrow and for the two going before hundreds of years, there had been two heads of Rome. One lived in the east, ordinarily in Constantinople (Byzantium). The other lived in the west, generally some place in Italy, despite the fact that not really the city of Rome. The head whom Odoacer removed had lived in Ravenna, Italy. A short time later, there was as yet one Roman sovereign, Zeno, who lived in Constantinople. Odoacer turned into the primary savage ruler of the western empire.The Roman People Lived On:Â While this bloodless overthrow in 476 is an often acknowledged date for the Fall of Rome and the start of the Middle Ages, it was not, at that point, a significant defining moment. Numerous occasions and propensities hinted at it and there were numerous individuals who kept on considering themselves and who keep on being thought of as Romans.Europes Kingdoms (From the Ashes of the Roman Empire): The accompan ying assets identify with the finish of the Roman Empire and the Fall of Rome. This incorporates speculations about the Fall of Rome (counting lead) and a few of the Roman sovereigns whose activities rushed the finish of the Roman Empire in the West. There is a segment with data on significant men whose birthplaces were a long way from the city of Rome. Reasons for the Fall of Rome Speculations on the Fall of Rome Non-Romans Who Impacted the Fall of Rome GothsGoths Origins?Michael Kulikowsky clarifies why Jordanes, our fundamental source on the Goths, who is himself viewed as a Goth, ought not be trusted.AttilaProfile of Attila, who is known as the Scourge of God.The HunsIn the overhauled release of The Huns, E. A. Thompson brings up issues about the military virtuoso of Attila the Hun.IllyriaDescendants of the early pioneers of the Balkans collided with the Roman Empire.JordanesJordanes, himself a Goth, condensed a lost history of the Goths by Cassiodorus.OdoacerThe brute who dismissed the sovereign of Rome.Sons of NubelSons of Nubel and the Gildonic WarIf the children of Nubel hadnt been so anxious to get rid of each other, Africa may have gotten autonomous of Rome.StilichoBecause of individual desire, Praetorian Prefect Rufinus forestalled Stilicho from crushing Alaric and the Goths when they had a chance.AlaricAlaric TimelineAlaric didnt need to sack Rome, however he wanted a spot for his Goths to remain and an appropriate title inside the Roman Empire. In spite of the fact that he didnt live to see it, the Goths got the main self-ruling realm inside the Roman Empire. Rome and Romans Fall of Rome Books:Â Recommended perusing for a cutting edge viewpoint on the explanations behind the fall of Rome.End of the Republic:Â Content identified with the men and occasions from the Gracchi and Marius through the fierce years between Julius Caesars death and the beginning of the principate under Augustus.Why Rome Fell:â 476 CE, the date Gibbon utilized for the fall of Rome dependent on the way that it was then that Odoacer ousted the sovereign of Rome, is dubious just like the purposes behind the fall.Roman Emperors Leading to the Fall:Â You could state Rome was nearly tumbling from the hour of its first ruler or you could state Rome fell in 476 CE or 1453, or even that it hasnt yet fallen.â End of the Republic *I think its pertinent to bring up that the last ruler of Rome was additionally not killed, yet only removed. In spite of the fact that ex-lord Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud) and his Etruscan partners attempted to recover the seat by warlike methods, Tarquins real testimony was bloodless, as per the legends the Romans told about themselves.

Choosing a College When You Have ADHD

Choosing a College When You Have ADHD ADHD School Print Choosing a College When You Have ADHD By Keath Low Keath Low, MA, is a therapist and clinical scientist with the Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities at the University of North Carolina. She specializes in treatment of ADD/ADHD. Learn about our editorial policy Keath Low Updated on September 14, 2018 ADHD Overview Symptoms Causes Diagnosis Treatment Living With In Children Hero Images/Getty Images Many students with ADHD go to typical colleges without supports and are able to function well. But there are also students with ADHD who benefit tremendously from a school or supports that are specifically geared to help them achieve to their highest potential. Schools Designed to Support Students With ADHD Several schools are specifically designed for students with ADHD. If you or your child have severe symptoms or prefer to be in a smaller, more supportive setting with staff who truly understand ADHD, one of these schools may be for you. These are just three of the accredited schools that are specifically intended to support students with ADHD: Beacon College is an accredited college that offers degrees exclusively for students with ADHD.Landmark College is a fully accredited two- and four-year degree granting institution designed for students with learning disabilities and ADHD.The Metamorphosis Coaching Program at Lynn University addresses specific executive functioning issues experienced by college students with ADHD. You don’t have to narrow your search to include just these colleges, however, as there are other options available to make college a successful time for you. It is important to be thoughtful in your approach to college. Spend time researching the schools you are considering to determine how they will best meet your needs. Here are two resource guides that may be helpful during the search phase. KW Guide to Colleges: For Students with Learning Disabilities or Attention Deficit DisorderColleges with Programs for Students with Learning Disabilities or Attention Deficit Disorders ADHD Support Services There are support services available for students with learning disabilities at many colleges. The quality and extent of these services, however, varies from school to school. Be sure to contact the disability support office at each of the schools you are considering to find out about the level of support they provide. The support office may be referred to by a number of names depending on the school. Search for the Office of Student Disability Services, Disability Support, Office of Disabled Student Services, Learning Support Services, etc. Here are a few questions to ask when you contact the disability support office at each school: Is the director of disability support services a specialist in ADHD and/or learning disabilities (LD)?How many students with ADHD does the support program serve?How many ADHD specialists work with the program full time?Are ADHD specialists also available for ongoing counseling, guidance, and support?Is there a formal ADHD support group available for students on campus?Does the school offer specialized academic advising for students with ADHD and LD?What kinds of specific accommodations does the school offer?Do they offer students with ADHD early registration in order to choose preferred courses and professors?Does disability support help to communicate each student’s needs to the appropriate professors?Is specialized tutoring available for students with ADHD and LD?Are there study skills, time management, and organizing classes available specifically for students with ADHD?Is there a physician at student health who has experience treating and prescribing medication for ADHD?Does th e office have a listing of professionals in the area who are experienced in treating ADHD? You may also want to ask to meet with one or two ADHD students enrolled in the school who currently receive disability support services. They are often the best resource for practical information about the strengths and weaknesses of the program.

Mexican Cartels And Its Effects On America - 2267 Words

The Mexican cartels have impacted the society by violating many rights that human have and that are protected. The Cartels are causing too much trouble to the world especially in Mexico and its neighboring countries. They have trafficking tons and tons of drugs to world and spread its violence to nation that live in peace. The cartels have been operating for while and keep growing becoming more powerful each day and nothing has stopped them yet. The Mexican cartels have constructed their empires through the violation of human rights in the business of drug trafficking, especially through torture and deaths, resulting in worldwide corruption. The Mexican cartels main purpose at the beginning was to construct their business from the†¦show more content†¦The United States agency of drugs have discovered that for all of the illegal drugs consumed in the nation has been transported by the Mexican cartels. â€Å"U.S. federal officials say that the mexican cartels operate in doze ns of U.S. cities and analysts say they are moving to consolidate their control of the entire supply chain of illegals drugs†(Schwartz, 1). The government of the United States have been conducting the investigation to now if the cartels are north. Many big cities today have a piece of the cartel organization working there and also producing drugs to distribute within the city. According to the investigation done by the DEA and U.N officials â€Å"Mexican cartels have established command - and - control centers to orchestrate cocaine shipments by sea and air along the still wild caribbean coast with the help of local authorities†(Booth, 2). All though that the cartel are moving to the United States they are still leaving command center in mexico to conduct shipments by ground or any other shipments overseas. The cartel is able to transport such quantities of drugs with help of the local authorities and other corrupt government officials. Most of the common drugs that the cartels produce is Cocaine, Marijuana, Meth, and other chemical formulated drugs produced with stronger chemicals everyday. â€Å" About 65% of the drugs, known as Crystal, Ice, Glass, Tweak, Zip, or just Meth is now either being made inShow MoreRelatedMexican Cartels And Its Effects On America2374 Words   |  10 Pagesby several drug cartels, and leaders. These drug cartels have been increasing their territory, murder tolls, and power. The cartels have started to take over the government and Mexico has been becoming known as a lost state. Drug cartels are rising to power because of the lack of government, and structure which also brings fear to all the regular citizens throughout Mexico. Many citizens regularly get murdered for lying to the cartel, informing the authorities about the cartels, or antagonizingRead MoreMexican Drug Cartels And Its Effects On America1445 Words   |  6 Pages At first, Mexican drug cartels were structured just like family owned businesses. There would be a family member who was the main drug lord and cousins and uncles of the family would be the body guards and drug dealers. After the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) lost their power within the Mexican government the structure of drug cartels became much more complex. A hierarchical diffusion is seen within the drug cartel system because the drugs spread from one important drug lord to anotherRead MoreMexican Drug War Outline816 Words   |  4 PagesWorks Cited Carpenter, Ted. Undermining Mexico’s Dangerous Drug Cartels. Cato Institute. N.p.. Web. 23 Jul 2013. lt;http://www.cato.org/publications/policy-analysis/undermining-mexicos-dangerous-drug-cartelsgt;. Al-Eryani, Ausan. Mexico’s drug war effects US as well. Collegiate Times. Virginia Tech. Web. 23 Jul 2013. lt;http://www.collegiatetimes.com/stories/18328/mexicos-drug-war-effects-us-as-well/p2gt;. Grillo, Ioan. US troops aid Mexico in drug war. Global Post. NRead MoreThe Mexican Cartel Is A Ruthless Crime Origination1182 Words   |  5 PagesThe Mexican cartel is a ruthless crime origination. It controls Mexico through bribes and fear. There are many factions of the cartel, and they are at constant war with one another. They war over many reasons from drugs to human trafficking. These battles often spill out into the streets causing the loose of many innocent lives. The cartel has a strangle hold on the Mexican people. The cartels operate much like other organized crime groups. Like the Mafia there are many factions. Each factionRead MoreThe Mexican Drug War and Its Consequences1185 Words   |  5 PagesThe Mexican Drug War and Its Consequences Despite President Felipe Calderon’s good intentions and determination to eliminate the drug cartels in Mexico, the Mexican government has not been able to stop the drug cartel’s operations (smuggling drugs, people and weapons to and from the USA) for many reasons. The drug cartels have proven to be powerful, well connected politically, well trained, well- armed, and manipulation of the masses. Therefore, it has been impossible for the MexicanRead MoreThe Major Economic Problems That Have Plagued Latin America1497 Words   |  6 Pages1. What are the major economic problems that have plagued Latin America in the 20th century? During the 20th century Latin America went through a change after the U.S made the clam to directly defend Latin America. This caused a sudden trade switch from the Europe nation to the U.S. With this trade switch we start to see a big gap between the lower and upper class. With this gap the poor gets poorer and the rich become Carlos Slim. Carlos Slim was the world’s richest person form 2010-2013 and isRead MoreAnalyzing Political Corruption And Its Effects On The Mexican Economy1623 Words   |  7 Pages Analyzing Political Corruption and its Effects on the Mexican Economy Gyadisha Sulvaran Palm Beach State College Macroeconomics Warren Smith 4th of April 2014 â€Æ' Abstract For macroeconomics, we were given an assignment to examine and analyze the causes of the business cycle in foreign economies. We were divided into groups of 6 and were given the instructions to randomly select a continent. Our continent was North America. We had to choose between Canada and Mexico. The reason why we decidedRead MoreDrug Trafficking1134 Words   |  5 Pagesbeing fought daily. There are many aspects of the drug war from Mexico and other Latin American states which have effects on United States policy as well as policies from other countries that participate in the global suppression of illegal drugs. It can be hard to differentiate between conflict and issue in regards to Latin America’s drug war and International Relations. The Mexican drug war is a global issue because it interferes with the states ability to collaborate and form policy in orderRead MoreEssay on Mexican/Latin American â€Å"War† on Drugs and Trafficking1122 Words   |  5 Pagesbeing fought daily. There are many aspects of the drug war from Mexico and other Latin American states which have effects on United States policy as well as policies from other countries that participate in the global suppression of illegal drugs. It can be hard to differentiate between conflict and issue in regards to Latin America’s drug war and International Relations. The Mexican drug war is a global issue because it interferes with the states ability to collaborate and form policy in order toRead More Mexican Cartel Essay1524 Words   |  7 PagesMexican Cartel Drug War Mexico has a long history of cartels the deaths, drugs and weapon trafficking is in all time high increasing year by year. â€Å"Mexicos gangs have flourished since the late 19th century, mostly in the north due to their proximity to towns along the U.S.-Mexico border. But it was the American appetite for cocaine in the 1970s that gave Mexican drug cartels immense power to manufacture and transport drugs across the border. Early Mexican gangs were primarily situated in border

Motivation Theory Literature Review - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 13 Words: 3954 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Psychology Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? INTRODUCTION: Motivation is naturally conceptualized either as an desire arising from within the human being or as an impulse arising from within the organism or as an attraction arising from an object external to the individual. According to Baron (1991) defines motivation as the internal processes that activate, guide, and maintain behaviour especially goal-directed behaviour. Also (Kanfer, 1998) defines as free will element of behaviour and the psychological mechanism governing the direction, intensity, and persistence of action not due solely to individual differences in ability or overwhelming environmental demands that force action. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Motivation Theory Literature Review" essay for you Create order Motivation has been defined as essential to adaptive functioning and quality of life (Marin Chakravorty, 2005), and as the content of the positive thinking one wishes to maintain towards the attainment of an objective (Schweingruber, 2006). According to (kanfer, 1990) states that challenges facing researchers into motivation is that it cannot be seen and most individual see is a multidimensional stream of behaviour and the products of those behaviours. Also states motivational processes can be inferred only from analysis of this continuing stream of behaviour that is determined both by environment and heredity and is observed through their effects on personality, belief, knowledge, abilities and skills. Besides that,(Herzberg,1987)describes movement as a function of fear of punishment or failure to get extrinsic rewards and motivation as a function of growth from getting intrinsic rewards out of interesting and challenging work. Motivation is to be intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is internal. Intrinsic motivation is obvious as the performance of an activity for its inborn satisfaction rather than for some detachable outcome. As soon as, intrinsically motivated, a person is stimulated to take action for the pleasurable or challenge entailed relatively than because of external products, pressures (Ryan et al 2000). It occurs when people are compelled to do something out of pleasure, importance, or desire. Extrinsic motivation occurs when external factors compel the person to do something. Extrinsic motivation is a pull together that pertains whenever an action is done in order to reach some detachable result. (Rayan et al. 2000).Motivation is the driving force within individuals that compels them physiologically and psychologically to pursue one or more goals to fulfil their needs or expectations. (Lam Tang, 2003, p. 61) From my understanding whatever the behaviour, the drive pushing or polling person to act in particular way is motivation and most researchers believe motivation as the drive behind human behaviour. Furthermore, people cannot be motivated to do something if there is nothing in it for them. Obviously, reward may be the avoidance of a negative outcome as much as it may be the achievement of a positive outcome. Motivation theory has to do with why do individual make the choices they make? or what makes someone persist at one activity and yet quickly give up another. Motivation is to give reason, incentive, enthusiasm, or interest that causes a specific action or certain behaviour. Motivation is present in every life function. Simple acts such as eating are motivated by hunger. Education is motivated by desire for knowledge. Motivation is a vital quality that pervades all aspects of teaching and learning. Motivated students display interest in activities, motivated teachers feel that they can help students learn and motivated administrators make possible teaching and learning in their buildings. Self-motivatio n is what most people use to define motivation at its highest mountain of accomplishments. If you are able to motivate yourself and reach your goals, you would have conquered the ability to be disciplined and will accomplish anything you put your mind to. Motivation is very important to all decisions that you have to make. In the workplace, motivation is defined by the actions that employees take to improve the company goals as well as their aspirations for career advancement. The effective performance of employees is what makes or breaks a company. So to keep employees motivated, employers must invest in the overall morale by implementing workshops and seminars to help them. Managers are the key personnel in what makes an employee follow directions. Using rewards like promotions and incentives as well as compliments can greatly improve an employees view of the company and its managers. Employees like to be recognized for their efforts regardless of the salary bracket. Such recognit ion keeps them motivated in getting their job done. Recognition in this case is the motivation technique that managers can tap into and gain the structure over the workplace environment of how they want things done. What organisation and managers can do is provide the environment, support and resources that will influence and effect motivation. Nowadays, managers are trying to find useful motivation theories to motivate their employees. While there are a wide variety of motivation theories on human motivation discussed in this literature review, which means that managers can use any or all those motivation theories to motivate their employees. Managers can use these motivation theories in ways that complement each other. MOTIVATION THEORY-MAJOR CONCEPTS AND CONTRIBUTIONS This is all about the main researchers of motivation theories and to illustrate how these theories can be apply to practical situation. Also reviewed how the major concepts and contributions can apply in work related situations and applying them in groups, teams at organisational level and individual level. Motivation is a complex concept and there are many different theories which look at the subject from different perspectives. The different theories of motivation and criticisms of the theories have been discussed as follows: 1: Hierarchy of needs theory by Maslow A.H. 2: Hygiene theory by Herzberg F. 3: X and Y theory by McGregor D.M. 4: Existence- Relatedness-Growth theory by Alderfer C. P. 5: Expectancy theory by Vroom V. 6: Goal-Setting Theory by Locke E.A. 7: Internal and External control theory by Rotter J.B. 8: Achievement theory by McClelland and Atkinson J.W. 9: Job characteristics theory by Hackman J.R. and Oldham G.R. HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY: According to Maslow (1954) projected that motivation is based on a number of human need. It has to do with the hierarchy that requires the lower more basic needs to be satisfied before the increasingly less basic ones above. Maslow believed that there are five basic needs of the theory. Maslows Hierarchy of Needs is one of the most famous motivation theories, and it has been the centre of much interest by management researchers (Katz, 2004). This (Fig.1) is Maslows hierarchy of needs in pyramid with physiological needs at the base, self-actualisation at the top. 5: Self- actualisation needs: Refer to personal growth and development. 4: Esteem or Ego needs: Refer to need for status and self respect. 3: Social needs: Refer to need to part of a social group and belongingness/love 2: Safety needs: Refer to security, need for shelter or physical danger. 1: Physiological needs: Refer to basic life needs, like food, drink, shelter, etc THE SELF ACTUALISATION NEED: Maslow defined self-actualization as the complete use and utilization of talents, capacities, potentialities. (Maslow,1954). Self-actualization is not a static state. It is an ongoing procedure in which ones capacities are fully, imaginatively, and cheerfully utilized. Self-actualizing people perceive life without a doubt and they are less emotional and more objective. ESTEEM OR EGO NEEDS: According to Maslow, esteem needs were made of two types of desire. I: Desire for strength, adequacy achievement, competence and confidence in the face of organisation. 2: Desire for reputation, glory dominance, recognition, appreciation and dignity Furthermore, people need to be respected, to have self-esteem, self- respect and respect. Self-Esteem expresses the normal human desire to be acknowledged and valued by others. This has to with ones internal needs for self-respect, autonomy and external needs for status and recognition. SOCIAL NEEDS: Are the third level of human needs from the (Fig 1) above. This has to do with ones needs for affection and a sense of belonging and acceptance. Human being need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance. They need to love and be loved. According to (Maslow, 1954) include the giving and receiving of affection. SAFETY NEEDS: As soon as peoples physical needs have satisfied, they will chase higher level needs, such as safety needs. Safety needs are determined by the need for security and protection from physical and emotion harm. Safety needs include: personal security, financial security, health and well-being, and a safety net or insurance for accidents/illness and the adverse impacts. PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS: Are the lowest level of needs, from the (Fig 1) above which are the most basic needs for people. Physiological needs are also measured the needs for human survival. If these needs are not met, people cannot continue to function. Physiological needs include: breathing, homeostasis, water, sleep, food, excretion, and sex. According to (Sarah Steve 2002, p175)the theory engrossed criticism regarding its principle that individuals work on satisfying needs at a higher level only once all lower- level needs have been met. Also major problem facing the theory is how to measure needs, both in terms of how powerfully they are felt and of how someone knows they have been met. Furthermore, the theory is not easy to apply directly to work because need are not met through one source. HYGIENE THEORY: According to (Herzberg et al 1959) proposed his Two-Factor Theory of Human Motivation, known as Motivation-Hygiene theory. Hygiene theory is based on the principle that things people come across satisfying in their jobs are not always the opposite of things they find dissatisfying. Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory is based on the results of research into the factors in a workplace that lead to employee satisfaction. Herzberg made use of a survey, titled, What do people want from their jobs? to achieve insights into what workplace factors people perceived as satisfying and dissatisfying. He asked people to describe in detail which workplace factors led to satisfaction and which factors led to dissatisfaction, and then he separated the results and classified them.Fig.2and Fig.3 show the factors that led to extreme satisfaction and dissatisfaction, respectively. Fig.2 Shows Factors that led to extreme satisfaction according to Herzberg Fig.3 shows Factors that led to extreme dissatis faction according to Herzberg According to(Robins 2001) The criticisms facing the theory, is methodology used by Herzberg does not take into account that often, when things are going well, people take the credit themselves, and when things are not , they blame others and their situation. There is on job satisfaction against which the people could rate their job. Also situational factors were not identified. Despite the criticisms the theory is a vital theory of motivation and used by managers to consider hygiene factors with regards to motivation. X and Y THEORY: Based on( McGregor, 1960)reviewed that the relationship between managers and employee could be immensely improved if the assumptions that had develop about how people behaved at work were changed from Theory X view to a Theory Y view. Basically one is positive and the other is negative. THEORY X: was based on scientific management school of thought and projected that enlarged productivity could result from breaking jobs down into small unit of work and giving workers a small range of obviously defined tasks to do. According to (Gray Stark, 1984) Employees do not like to work and want to evade work as much as possible. Employees do not want to take responsibility for the work; managers should take some actions, like convincing and supervising strategies, to help them finishing their mission. Theory X assumed that human actions are dictated by low-level needs, THEORY Y: Was based the predominant theory of management there could be no trust between management and employee. Also Small opportunity for relationship between management and employees in theory .According to (Gray Stark, 1984) employees treat work as entertainment and rest, it is natural. Employees have the ability to make creative decisions, not just managers. Theory Y assumed that human actions are determined by high-level needs. The theory X and Y can influence how motivating factors are regarded within an organisation. Theory X has to do with extrinsic rewards such as pay in order to motivate people to execute good in their job while theory Y has to do with working environment in which employees may discern intrinsic rewards in their job. EXISTENCE RELATEDNESS GROWTH THEORY: This has the similarities to Maslows needs hierarchy. Alderfer C.P. extended and simplified Maslows hierarchy into a shorter set of three needs: Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) Theory. (Alderfer, 1969) EXISTENCE NEEDS: According to (Hollyforde Whiddett 2002) Refers Existence needs as our concern with basic material subsistence motivators and size of how satisfied this need is therefore mostly stated in conditions of what one person has in relation to others. Existence needs, is based on various forms of material and physiological needs. RELATEDNESS NEEDS: Refers to theÂÂ  motivation we have in support of maintaining interpersonal relationships GROWTH NEEDS: Refers to an intrinsic desire for personal development. Relate to personal creativity and productivity. According to (Sarah Steve 2002), the theory does not suggests how a person may meet his or needs .So managers cannot presume that everyones relationship needs will be met in the same way. Also the th eory ERG theory with its three broad categories is maybe easier to deal with than the five levels of need in hierarchy of needs theory. EXPECTANCY THEORY: Vroom suggests that this theory is Based on the principle that people expect particular actions to achieve a desired result and that the desired result is something worth striving for or avoiding. Vroom does not give attention to on needs, but rather focuses on outcomes. According to (Vroom, 1964) identifies two terms the theory. 1. Expectancy: means the stronger the assurance that an act will be followed by particular outcome, the stronger the expectancy is considered to be 2. Valence: Means affective orientations toward particular outcome either positive or negative. Theory expectancy and valence of Vroom concentrated on extrinsic outcomes rather than intrinsic ones. Based on research expectancy and valence are not as distinct from each other as Vroom recommended .And one the key criticisms is that the theory was tested as if it was based on behavioural and attitudinal predictions across rather than within persons. Furthermore, expectancy theory accommodates multiple wor k outcomes in forecasting motivation and predicts motivation to work hard to earn the merit pay will be low if expectancy low (Schermerhorn J. et al 1997) GOAL-SETTING THEORY: The theory is based on the principle that individuals are motivated to achieve the successful accomplishment of challenging goal. According to (Locke, 1968) based his result on three main conclusions. 1: The more hard goals result in higher level of performance than easy goal 2: The specific goals produce higher levels of performance than general goals. 3: The behavioural intentions influence the choices people make. The Goal -Setting theory is helpful to many managers because much of people management is particularly about performance against goals. Theory has great relevance for managers. According to (Robins, 2001) Implies that Goal Setting theory is restricted to those cultures that match the ones in which the research was carried out. INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL THEORY: The theory is based on locus of control. Locus of Control refers to an individuals perception about the underlying main causes of events in his/her life. According to (Rotter, 1966) invented the internal -external dimension to determine locus of control. Based on the extent to which people feel they are in control of the situations that engulfed them and also the extent to which they are convinced of directing events 1. External control: when individual feels that result of his or her actions is as the result of chance, luck as under the powerful others. 2. Internal control: When individual perceives that the occurrence is contingent upon his own behaviour. The Internal and External theory has been criticised for its centre of attention on the Internal-external dimension only as on personality variable .Besides that the theory is useful when considering motivation issues at individual level. ACHIEVEMENT THEORY: The theory is based the needs that can be classed as either Achievement(nAch), Affiliation(nAff) or Power(nPow) .Also theory is based on three factors research into behaviour in achievement-oriented activities. 1: when individual expects to receive unmistakable feedback on the marks of his or her action. 2: When individual feels liable for the outcome success or failure. 3: When individual feels a little level of uncertainty or risk in the activity Achievement theory does not explore why some people enjoyment a challenge and others fear failure. Achievement theory was not specifically about work. The theory is useful when considering why individuals react different to achieving tough goals and why they react to failure in individual ways (Sarah Steve 2002).McClelland recommends that top managers should have a high need for power coupled with a low need for affiliation. Sunil R. Cited (Kreitner kinicki 1998) JOB CHARACTERISTICS THEORY This theory is based on how to design a job so that it is motivating to individual. Also the theory deals with how individual responds to complex and challenging tasks. According to (Hackman Oldham 1976) job characteristics theory proposed that individuals intrinsic motivation is affected by psychological states: 1: Experienced meaningfulness of the work: The extent individuals perceive the job as meaningful and valuable. 2: Experienced responsibility for the outcomes of the work:-the extent individual feels personally accountable and responsible for the outcome of work done. 3: Knowledge of the result of the activities:-the extent individual knows, and understands on continuous basis how successfully he or she is performing the work Also theory has five job dimensions 1: Skill variety-this has to with number of type of skill and talents of individual. 2: Task identity-this has to with work at hand and job completion 3: task significance- this has to with job considerable impact on lives or work of other people. 4: Autonomy -All about individual in setting up the work and determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. (Freedom and independence at work environment). 5: Feedback-All about individual getting direct and clear result about the effectiveness of his or her performance The theory is one of the few motivation theories specific to an organisational environment and has plenty of practical application. Theory centre of attention is on facilitating0 high internal work motivation. Hackman and Oldman based their theory on motivating individual through job design. CONTRIBUTIONS: According to (Whittington Evans 2005) The Hierarchy of Needs theory proposed by Maslow has been identified as a major influencing factor in the growth of other motivation and management work, such as that of McGregor (Theory X and Theory Y) and Herzberg Motivation-Hygiene theory. It has been generally applied as a basis for much research into, among other things, workforce commitment, job satisfaction and management theory (Stum, 2001). Goal-Setting Theory by Locke has been acknowledged the best goals and dispute facing management environment and Achievement theory by McClelland has identified problems facing motive to achieve success in management work. (Sarah Steve 2002).Expectancy theory has been used to identify job satisfaction, occupational choice, the likelihood of staying in a job, and the effort that one might expand at management work. Internal and External control theory by Rotter has enhanced the concept of persistence (locus of control) in management work. The job ch aracteristics theory relies on workers insight of the job dimensions for the accomplishment of the psychological states that lead to increased motivation. APPLICATION OF THE CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION TO FACILITIES MANAGEMENT Facilities management regularly deals with identifying relations that humans have with their environment. According to (Smith et al., 1997) the rates of pay had very little influence on participants job satisfaction and subsequent work motivation. Some affiliation can be made at this point to Maslows lowest levels of his hierarchy of needs physiological and safety needs. Maslow argued that individuals can only move up the hierarchy of needs to the higher levels of belongingness/love, esteem and finally self-actualisation, once the lower levels had been achieved; however, the results demonstrated in this study suggest that ancillary staff can be motivated and achieve higher levels of Maslows hierarchy without having their physiological and safety needs completely fulfilled. Individuals can only move up the hierarchy of needs to the higher levels of belongingness/love, esteem and finally self-actualisation, once the lower levels had been achieved; on the other hand, the results demo nstrated in this study suggest that facilities managers can motivate their staff and achieve higher levels of Maslows hierarchy without having their physiological and safety needs completely fulfilled. McGregors Theory X and y focused on managements assumptions about employees. Theory X and Y describe the average worker from management perspective and suggest methods by which facilities manager can get the best out of worker. Herzberg studies concentrated on satisfaction at work. Herzberg came to a conclusion that certain factors tended to lead to job satisfaction.(motivators),while others led to frequently to dissatisfaction(Hygiene factors).these factor are related to job context they are concerned with job environment as an extrinsic to the job itself. Shane, S., 2001. Technology opportunities and new firm creation. Management Science 47 9, pp. 1173-1181. LATEST IDEAS ON MOTIVATION THEORY First of all, fields of management background study like leadership, decision making and organization plan persist to develop conceptually speculative developments focusing on work motivation have not held in reserve speed. These changes can have a philosophical manipulate on how companies challenge to attract, retain and motivate their employees in labour market. JOB DESIGN: This is about changing the content or process of job to increase job satisfaction and performance. This is usually easier for new organisational or new business unit. Furthermore, most organisations find themselves designing as the result of organisational change and to motivate their Staff. Job design is relating to job characteristics theory, suggests job should be design in such a way as to maximise intrinsic motivation. (Sarah Steve 2002) EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION: This gives managers strategies, to promotes positive improvement in organizations particularly motivation and performance improvement o f employees. For organization to improve well, messages should be designed in such a way as to maximise motivation. Effective communication strategies have strong effect to motivation of employees. (Sarah Steve 2002) OBJECTIVCE- SETTING: This is important to managers to focus individuals work efforts. It is important to commit employee with goals to motivate them. Most organisations applied Management by Objective (MBO) to motivate their employee. This is relating to Goal-setting, suggests individuals tend to produce higher levels of performance when they have specific goal. (Sarah Steve 2002) MANAGING VIRTUAL TEAMS: Is made of group people who regularly work mutually dependent for joint purpose across time, distance and organization. So motivating people to apply for jobs in virtual teams is one of the latest ideas. CONCULSIONS Motivational techniques, therefore, are useful to teachers, leaders, parents, employers, and almost anyone. The key is in understanding that you are not motivating someone else. Instead, you are simply providing a circumstance that triggers that person to be motivated. However, The developments in motivation and management theory. (Whittington Evans 2005) conclude that the road to building high commitment organisations requires the solid foundation laid by Maslow, McGregor and Herzberg. Motivation theories can therefore offer guidance to anyone interest in motivational issues. Motivation theories discussed above can help mangers consider how and why people are motivated. For example, Hierarchy of need theory may help manager figures out where someone is in term of the satisfaction his or her short and long term needs -which may in turn influence how they seek to create the situation that may be the most motivating. Motivation theories discussed were based on work related environme nts. However the can be applied to help individuals understand human behaviour at work. This literature review also emphasized the important of motivation theories to facilities manager with regards to working environments. Also provide frameworks enable facilities manager to manage their working environment. Finally, one of the challenge facing researchers into motivation, it cannot be seen.

Morality vs. Obedience Free Essays

â€Å"If you can’t give a good reason for believing what you believe, then it’s not your belief; it’s someone else’s. † Morality vs. Obedience How would someone tease apart this blanket statement and how would they compare it to morality and obedience in less than three pages? Well, this is how I would. We will write a custom essay sample on Morality vs. Obedience or any similar topic only for you Order Now First, I’d start by making clear that belief is different from knowledge. Knowledge can be defined as â€Å"a clear perception of a truth or fact, erudition; skill from practice. A belief can be defined as â€Å"an assent to anything proposed or declared, and its acceptance as fact by reason of the authority from whence it proceeds, apart from personal knowledge; faith. † So, to be clear, knowledge is dropping a ball and knowing that it will fall to the ground because of prior experience and the perception that the existence of gravity is a fact. Belief would be dropping the ball and believing it will float because your older brother told you it would. Next, I would establish that this statement is not staking claim on any measure of truth as it relates to beliefs or knowledge. Beliefs and knowledge are both dynamic concepts on all organizational levels of the human experience, from the individual to the global. Lets take for example the statement, â€Å"The Earth is flat. † Five hundred years ago, this statement was knowledge. Today, it’s knowledge that this statement is false. Knowledge changes based on the information and evidence available to us at any point in time. This is also true of beliefs but in a different way. When most of us were young, we believed in the Tooth Fairy. Why? Because someone told us she was real. However, this belief changed as we began to mature and rely more upon our own abilities to discern truth from fiction. Thus, we have established that both knowledge and belief are subjective but for different reasons. Belief requires no evidence, while knowledge requires evidence and/or experience. I would now like to make a comparative argument regarding morality and obedience. Simply put, morality is ‘doing what’s right, regardless of what anyone says’ and obedience is ‘doing what your told, regardless of what’s right. One can think of many examples regarding these concepts as they are defined but I will leave this to the reader’s imagination. There is a simple truth to defining obedience and morality in this manner that I find directly comparable to the examined quotation. Neither belief nor obedience require an individual or group to actively engage in an activity or thought process independently. There is no critical thinking involved and one must put their faith in the ‘rightness’ or ‘truth’ of another’s belief, knowledge or otherwise. Both knowledge and morality require active engagement. One cannot possess knowledge without having evidence to back it up and one cannot act morally without understanding what it is that makes a situation right or wrong in their eyes. This is especially true when acting morally requires someone to go against social norms or established laws. The point of this paper is to shed light on the fact that we are all responsible for ourselves to the extent that we can be. No one person can know everything about everything, so belief and obedience are often useful and easy fallbacks. For example, I don’t snowboard on black diamond slopes. This is not because I have knowledge of how hurt I will get but because I belief the sign posting and obediently board within my level to avoid possible injury. However, in every decision one makes there should be a component of knowledge and morality applied. In application to the snowboarding example, I know, from experience, that my snowboarding skills are not on par with a black diamond. I choose not to risk my health and the resources of first responders by making the moral decision to stay off of it, despite my desire to challenge myself. How to cite Morality vs. Obedience, Papers

History Of Math Essay Example For Students

History Of Math Essay Mathematics, study of relationships among quantities, magnitudes, and properties and of logical operations by which unknown quantities, magnitudes, and properties may be deduced. In the past, mathematics was regarded as the science of quantity, whether of magnitudes, as in geometry, or of numbers, as in arithmetic, or of the generalization of these two fields, as in algebra. Toward the middle of the 19th century, however, mathematics came to be regarded increasingly as the science of relations, or as the science that draws necessary conclusions. This latter view encompasses mathematical or symbolic logic, the science of using symbols to provide an exact theory of logical deduction and inference based on definitions, axioms, postulates, and rules for combining and transforming primitive elements into more complex relations and theorems. This brief survey of the history of mathematics traces the evolution of mathematical ideas and concepts, beginning in prehistory. Indeed, mathematics is nearly as old as humanity itself; evidence of a sense of geometry and interest in geometric pattern has been found in the designs of prehistoric pottery and textiles and in cave paintings. Primitive counting systems were almost certainly based on using the fingers of one or both hands, as evidenced by the predominance of the numbers 5 and 10 as the bases for most number systems today. Ancient Mathematics The earliest records of advanced, organized mathematics date back to the ancient Mesopotamian country of Babylonia and to Egypt of the 3rd millennium BC. There mathematics was dominated by arithmetic, with an emphasis on measurement and calculation in geometry and with no trace of later mathematical concepts such as axioms or proofs. The earliest Egyptian texts, composed about 1800 BC, reveal a decimal numeration system with separate symbols for the successive powers of 10 (1, 10, 100, and so forth), just as in the system used by the Romans. Numbers were represented by writing down the symbol for 1, 10, 100, and so on as many times as the unit was in a given number. For example, the symbol for 1 was written five times to represent the number 5, the symbol for 10 was written six times to represent the number 60, and the symbol for 100 was written three times to represent the number 300. Together, these symbols represented the number 365. Addition was done by totaling separately the units-10s, 100s, and so forth-in the numbers to be added. Multiplication was based on successive doublings, and division was based on the inverse of this process. The Egyptians used sums of unit fractions (a), supplemented by the fraction B, to express all other fractions. For example, the fraction E was the sum of the fractions 3 and *. Using this system, the Egyptians were able to solve all problems of arithmetic that involved fractions, as well as some elementary problems in algebra. In geometry, the Egyptians calculated the correct areas of triangles, rectangles, and trapezoids and the volumes of figures such as bricks, cylinders, and pyramids. To find the area of a circle, the Egyptians used the square on U of the diameter of the circle, a value of about 3.16-close to the value of the ratio known as pi, which is about 3.14. The Babylonian system of numeration was quite different from the Egyptian system. In the Babylonian system-which, when using clay tablets, consisted of various wedge-shaped marks-a single wedge indicated 1 and an arrowlike wedge stood for 10 (see table). Numbers up through 59 were formed from these symbols through an additive process, as in Egyptian mathematics. The number 60, however, was represented by the same symbol as 1, and from this point on a positional symbol was used. That is, the value of one of the first 59 numerals depended henceforth on its position in the total numeral. For example, a numeral consisting of a symbol for 2 followed by one for 27 and ending in one for 10 stood for 2 ? 602 + 27 ? 60 + 10. This principle was extended to the representation of fractions as well, so that the above sequence of numbers could equally well represent 2 ? 60 + 27 + 10 ? († ), or 2 + 27 ? († ) + 10 ? († -2). With this sexagesimal system (base 60), as it is called, the Babylonians had as convenient a numerical system as the 10-based system. The Babylonians in time developed a sophisticated mathematics by which they could find the positive roots of any quadratic equation (Equation). They could even find the roots of certain cubic equations. The Babylonians had a variety of tables, including tables for multiplication and division, tables of squares, and tables of compound interest. They could solve complicated problems using the Pythagorean theorem; one of their tables contains integer solutions to the Pythagorean equation, a2 + b2 = c2, arranged so that c2/a2 decreases steadily from 2 to about J. The Babylonians were able to sum arithmetic and some geometric progressions, as well as sequences of squares. They also arrived at a good approximation for ?. In geometry, they calculated the areas of rectangles, triangles, and trapezoids, as well as the volumes of simple shapes such as bricks and cylinders. However, the Babylonians did not arrive at the correct formula for the volume of a pyramid. Greek Mathematics The Greeks adopted elements of mathematics from both the Babylonians and the Egyptians. The new element in Greek mathematics, however, was the invention of an abstract mathematics founded on a logical structure of definitions, axioms, and proofs. According to later Greek accounts, this development began in the 6th century BC with Thales of Miletus and Pythagoras of Samos, the latter a religious leader who taught the importance of studying numbers in order to understand the world. Some of his disciples made important discoveries about the theory of numbers and geometry, all of which were attributed to Pythagoras. In the 5th century BC, some of the great geometers were the atomist philosopher Democritus of Abdera, who discovered the correct formula for the volume of a pyramid, and Hippocrates of Chios, who discovered that the areas of crescent-shaped figures bounded by arcs of circles are equal to areas of certain triangles. This discovery is related to the famous problem of squaring the circle-that is, constructing a square equal in area to a given circle. Two other famous mathematical problems that originated during the century were those of trisecting an angle and doubling a cube-that is, constructing a cube the volume of which is double that of a given cube. All of these problems were solved, and in a variety of ways, all involving the use of instruments more complicated than a straightedge and a geometrical compass. Not until the 19th century, however, was it shown that the three problems mentioned above could never have been solved using those instruments alone. In the latter part of the 5th century BC, an unknown mathematician discovered that no unit of length would measure both the side and diagonal of a square. That is, the two lengths are incommensurable. This means that no counting numbers n and m exist whose ratio expresses the relationship of the side to the diagonal. Since the Greeks considered only the counting numbers (1, 2, 3, and so on) as numbers, they had no numerical way to express this ratio of diagonal to side. (This ratio, ?, would today be called irrational.) As a consequence the Pythagorean theory of ratio, based on numbers, had to be abandoned and a new, nonnumerical theory introduced. This was done by the 4th-century BC mathematician Eudoxus of Cnidus, whose solution may be found in the Elements of Euclid. Eudoxus also discovered a method for rigorously proving statements about areas and volumes by successive approximations. Euclid was a mathematician and teacher who worked at the famed Museum of Alexandria and who also wrote on optics, astronomy, and music. The 13 books that make up his Elements contain much of the basic mathematical knowledge discovered up to the end of the 4th century BC on the geometry of polygons and the circle, the theory of numbers, the theory of incommensurables, solid geometry, and the elementary theory of areas and volumes. The century that followed Euclid was marked by mathematical brilliance, as displayed in the works of Archimedes of Syracuse and a younger contemporary, Apollonius of Perga. Archimedes used a method of discovery, based on theoretically weighing infinitely thin slices of figures, to find the areas and volumes of figures arising from the conic sections. These conic sections had been discovered by a pupil of Eudoxus named Menaechmus, and they were the subject of a treatise by Euclid, but Archimedes writings on them are the earliest to survive. Archimedes also investigated centers of gravity and the stability of various solids floating in water. Much of his work is part of the tradition that led, in the 17th century, to the discovery of the calculus. Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier during the sack of Syracuse. His younger contemporary, Apollonius, produced an eight-book treatise on the conic sections that established the names of the sections: ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola. It also provided the basic treatment of their geometry until the time of the French philosopher and scientist Ren? Descartes in the 17th century. After Euclid, Archimedes, and Apollonius, Greece produced no geometers of comparable stature. The writings of Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century AD show how elements of both the Babylonian and Egyptian mensurational, arithmetic traditions survived alongside the logical edifices of the great geometers. Very much in the same tradition, but concerned with much more difficult problems, are the books of Diophantus of Alexandria in the 3rd century AD. They deal with finding rational solutions to kinds of problems that lead immediately to equations in several unknowns. Such equations are now called Diophantine equations (see Diophantine Analysis). Career Development through International Mobility EssayThe greatest mathematician of the 18th century was Leonhard Euler, a Swiss, who made basic contributions to calculus and to all other branches of mathematics, as well as to the applications of mathematics. He wrote textbooks on calculus, mechanics, and algebra that became models of style for writing in these areas. The success of Euler and other mathematicians in using calculus to solve mathematical and physical problems, however, only accentuated their failure to develop a satisfactory justification of its basic ideas. That is, Newtons own accounts were based on kinematics and velocities, Leibnizs explanation was based on infinitesimals, and Lagranges treatment was purely algebraic and founded on the idea of infinite series. All these systems were unsatisfactory when measured against the logical standards of Greek geometry, and the problem was not resolved until the following century. 19th Century In 1821 a French mathematician, Augustin Louis Cauchy, succeeded in giving a logically satisfactory approach to calculus. He based his approach only on finite quantities and the idea of a limit. This solution posed another problem, however; that of a logical definition of ?real number.? Although Cauchys explanation of calculus rested on this idea, it was not Cauchy but the German mathematician Julius W. R. Dedekind who found a satisfactory definition of real numbers in terms of the rational numbers. This definition is still taught, but other definitions were given at the same time by the German mathematicians Georg Cantor and Karl T. W. Weierstrass. A further important problem, which arose out of the problem-first stated in the 18th century-of describing the motion of a vibrating string, was that of defining what is meant by function. Euler, Lagrange, and the French mathematician Jean Baptiste Fourier all contributed to the solution, but it was the German mathematician P eter G. L. Dirichlet who proposed the definition in terms of a correspondence between elements of the domain and the range. This is the definition that is found in texts today. In addition to firming the foundations of analysis, as the techniques of the calculus were by then called, mathematicians of the 19th century made great advances in the subject. Early in the century, Carl Friedrich Gauss gave a satisfactory explanation of complex numbers, and these numbers then formed a whole new field for analysis, one that was developed in the work of Cauchy, Weierstrass, and the German mathematician Georg F. B. Riemann. Another important advance in analysis was Fouriers study of infinite sums in which the terms are trigonometric functions. Known today as Fourier series, they are still powerful tools in pure and applied mathematics. In addition, the investigation of which functions could be equal to Fourier series led Cantor to the study of infinite sets and to an arithmetic of infinite numbers. Cantors theory, which was considered quite abstract and even attacked as a ?disease from which mathematics will soon recover,? now forms part of the foundations of mathemat ics and has more recently found applications in the study of turbulent flow in fluids. A further 19th-century discovery that was considered apparently abstract and useless at the time was non-Euclidean geometry. In non-Eculidean geometry, more than one parallel can be drawn to a given line through a given point not on the line. Evidently this was discovered first by Gauss, but Gauss was fearful of the controversy that might result from publication. The same results were rediscovered independently and published by the Russian mathematician Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky and the Hungarian J?nos Bolyai. Non-Euclidean geometries were studied in a very general setting by Riemann with his invention of manifolds and, since the work of Einstein in the 20th century, they have also found applications in physics. Gauss was one of the greatest mathematicians who ever lived. Diaries from his youth show that this infant prodigy had already made important discoveries in number theory, an area in which his book Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (1801) marks the beginning of the modern era. While only 18, Gauss discovered that a regular polygon with m sides can be constructed by straightedge and compass when m is a power of 2 times distinct primes of the form 2n + 1. In his doctoral dissertation he gave the first satisfactory proof of the fundamental theorem of algebra. Often he combined scientific and mathematical investigations. Examples include his development of statistical methods along with his investigations of the orbit of a newly discovered planetoid; his founding work in the field of potential theory, along with the study of magnetism; and his study of the geometry of curved surfaces in tandem with his investigations of surveying. Of more importance for algebra itself than Gausss proof of its fundamental theorem was the transformation of the subject during the 19th century from a study of polynomials to a study of the structure of algebraic systems. A major step in this direction was the invention of symbolic algebra in England by George Peacock. Another was the discovery of algebraic systems that have many, but not all, of the properties of the real numbers. Such systems include the quaternions of the Irish mathematician William Rowan Hamilton, the vector analysis of the American mathematician and physicist J. Willard Gibbs, and the ordered n-dimensional spaces of the German mathematician Hermann G?nther Grassmann. A third major step was the development of group theory from its beginnings in the work of Lagrange. Galois applied this work deeply to provide a theory of when polynomials may be solved by an algebraic formula. Just as Descartes had applied the algebra of his time to the study of geometry, so the German mathematician Felix Klein and the Norwegian mathematician Marius Sophus Lie applied the algebra of the 19th century. Klein applied it to the classification of geometries in terms of their groups of transformations (the so-called Erlanger Programm), and Lie applied it to a geometric theory of differential equations by means of continuous groups of transformations known as Lie groups. In the 20th century, algebra has also been applied to a general form of geometry known as topology. Another subject that was transformed in the 19th century, notably by Laws of Thought (1854), by the English mathematician George Boole and by Cantors theory of sets, was the foundations of mathematics (Logic). Toward the end of the century, however, a series of paradoxes were discovered in Cantors theory. One such paradox, found by English mathematician Bertrand Russell, aimed at the very concept of a set ( Set Theory). Mathematicians responded by constructing set theories sufficiently restrictive to keep the paradoxes from arising. They left open the question, however, of whether other paradoxes might arise in these restricted theories-that is, whether the theories were consistent. As of the present time, only relative consistency proofs have been given. (That is, theory A is consistent if theory B is consistent.) Particularly disturbing is the result, proved in 1931 by the American logician Kurt G?del, that in any axiom system complicated enough to be interesting to most mathematic ians, it is possible to frame propositions whose truth cannot be decided within the system. Current Mathematics At the International Conference of Mathematicians held in Paris in 1900, the German mathematician David Hilbert spoke to the assembly. Hilbert was a professor at G?ttingen, the former academic home of Gauss and Riemann. He had contributed to most areas of mathematics, from his classic Foundations of Geometry (1899) to the jointly authored Methods of Mathematical Physics. Hilberts address at G?ttingen was a survey of 23 mathematical problems that he felt would guide the work being done in mathematics during the coming century. These problems have indeed stimulated a great deal of the mathematical research of the century. When news breaks that another of the ?Hilbert problems? has been solved, mathematicians all over the world await the details of the story with impatience. Important as these problems have been, an event that Hilbert could not have foreseen seems destined to play an even greater role in the future development of mathematics-namely, the invention of the programmable digital computer (Computer). Although the roots of the computer go back to the geared calculators of Pascal and Leibniz in the 17th century, it was Charles Babbage in 19th-century England who designed a machine that could automatically perform computations based on a program of instructions stored on cards or tape. Babbages imagination outran the technology of his day, however, and it was not until the invention of the relay, then of the vacuum tube, and then of the transistor, that large-scale, programmed computation became feasible. This development has given great impetus to areas of mathematics such as numerical analysis and finite mathematics. It has suggested new areas for mathematical investigation, such as the study of algorithms. It has also become a powerful tool in areas as diverse as number theory, differential equations, and abstract algebra. In addition, the computer has made possible the solution of several long-standing problems in mathematics, such as the four-color problem first proposed in the mid-19th century. The theorem stated that four colors are sufficient to color any map, given that any two countries with a contiguous boundary require different colors. The theorem was finally proved in 1976 by means of a large-scale computer at the University of Illinois. Mathematical knowledge in the modern world is advancing at a faster rate than ever before. Theories that were once separate have been incorporated into theories that are both more comprehensive and more abstract. Although many important problems have been solved, other hardy perennials, such as the Riemann hypothesis, remain, and new and equally challenging problems arise. Even the most abstract mathematics seems to be finding applications. Mathematics

Solar Energy - The Energy Of The Future Essays - Energy Conversion

Solar Energy - The Energy Of The Future? About 47 per cent of the energy that the sun releases to the earth actually reaches the ground. About a third is reflected directly back into space by the atmosphere. The time in which solar energy is available, is also the time we least need it least - daytime. Because the sun's energy cannot be stored for use another time, we need to convert the suns energy into an energy that can be stored. One possible method of storing solar energy is by heating water that can be insulated. The water is heated by passing it through hollow panels. Black-coated steal plates are used because dark colours absorb heat more efficiently. However this method only supplies enough energy for activities such as washing and bathing. The solar panels generate "low grade" heat, that is, they generate low temperatures for the amount of heat needed in a day. In order to generate "high grade" heat, intense enough to convert water into high-pressure steam which can then be used to turn electric generators there must be another method. The concentrated beams of sunlight are collected in a device called a solar furnace, which acts on the same principles as a large magnifying glass. The solar furnace takes the sunlight from a large area and by the use of lenses and mirrors can focus the light into a very small area. Very elaborate solar furnaces have machines that angle the mirrors and lenses to the sun all day. This system can provide sizeable amounts of electricity and create extremely high temperatures of over 6000 degrees Fahrenheit. Solar energy generators are very clean, little waste is emitted from the generators into the environment. The use of coal, oil and gasoline is a constant drain, economically and environmentally. Will solar energy be the wave of the future? Could the worlds requirement of energy be fulfilled by the "powerhouse" of our galaxy - the sun? Automobiles in the future will probably run on solar energy, and houses will have solar heaters.

St. Anselms God Necessarily Exists Essays - Philosophy Of Religion

St. Anselm's God Necessarily Exists Essays - Philosophy Of Religion St. Anselm's God Necessarily Exists Throughout history It has been man kinds quest to find a proof of the existence of God. Even today, religious archeologist, plunder the Earth, looking for Noah's Ark, The Ark of the Covenant, or the site Jesus Christ was thought to have been buried. These men and women are searching for artifacts to prove the existence of God to people who believe there is no God. Many people, however, do not need artifacts to prove God's existence, they have faith, and like St. Anselm of Canterbury, believe that God is the greatest of all conceivable things, nothing else can be thought to exist greater than God. St. Anselm states that he wants to find a proof of God, not because he does not believe in God, but because he believes in God, he wants proof of his belief. This means he is not searching for proof for his own sake, for he already believes God exists, he is searching for proof for his belief's sake. He believes he was put on Earth to find God, and he has not yet accomplished what he is searching for. Knowing this, St. Anselm sets up an ontological argument to prove the existence of God. First of all, to fully understand this perplexing argument, you must strongly believe the definition of God St. Anselm gives, which is as followed: God is something that which nothing greater can be conceived. This means that no one can think of anything that is greater than God. Even if a person does not believe that God exists, as long as the person believes this definition of God, St. Anselm can prove the existence of God. The second idea you must believe, in order to fully understand the argument, is, it is greater to exist than not to exist. Next, St. Anselm describes two kinds of existence: existence in the mind, and existence in reality. Existence in reality is very easy to believe. If you can touch, see, smell, hear, or taste something, in reality it exists. Existence in the mind is harder to understand for some, because many people only believe what they see. St. Anselm gives a beautiful illustration of how he can prove that something can exist in the mind, and also in reality. He gives us the example of a painter, before the painter paints a picture, in his mind he has an understanding of what the painting will look like. After the painter has made the painting, the painter will believe it exists in his mind, for he had the vision of the painting before he performed it, and in reality, because now he can see the painting with his own eyes. Now, St .Anselm has proven two things: God is that which nothing greater can be conceived, and it is greater to exist than not exist. Given you already know that something can exist in the mind as well as in reality, you are now fully ready to understand St. Anselm's ontological argument. Which is as follows: God is by definition the greatest being possible. A being who fails to exist is less perfect than a being who exists. Therefore, God must exist, necessarily. If a being failed to exist, the being would be, that than which nothing greater cannot be conceived. Since God is a being that than which nothing greater can be conceived, God must exist not only in your mind, or understanding, but also in reality. Therefore God exists. Now then, anyone who truly believes the definition of God can still say God does not exist in their mind. However, in reality, the person who truly understands this ontological Argument cannot deny the existence of God. For God is that than which nothing greater can be conceived. After St. Anselm first interpreted this ontological argument, it was no surprise to that some one would say that his argument was flawed. Gaunilo was a monk in the church along with St. Anselm. Gaunilo believed that you could set up this argument with anything, as long as it was by definition perfect, and make it seem to exist. The example Gaunilo gives is an argument of the perfect island. Gaunilo says that there is a lost

Starting a Business Online Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Starting a Business Online - Assignment Example It is in this context that reselling of domain names to third parties, as mentioned in the case, is likely to increase the chances of fraudulent and miscommunication in the business process further leading to customer dissatisfaction. This can be considered as a legality constraint while selling a domain name (Clayton & Moore, 2011). In the referred case, the domain name of the organization can be identified playing a vital role to provide a professional appearance in the online business which can be more viable for the enterprise in its future conducts. However, the domain names also transmit some disputes along with it. For instance, the selling of domain names are often identified to increase the risks of subjectivity in terms that the future prospects of generating significant cash flows in future can raise confusions in calculating its proper valuation (Investopedia, 2012). Therefore, considering the future chances of generating larger cash flows and other constraints in terms o f subjectivity and legality, it would be a better decision not to sell the domain name at the quoted price. Answer 2 The catalog display in the e-commerce involve with the facilities to display the products or the features of providing services with regards to online sales. The concept of e-commerce entails with the visual communication about various products/services along with the different varieties, ingredients, and pricing options to the customers. The catalog display of e-business is one of the major tools which communicates and provides browsing options in order to assist the user in acquiring the desired products/services presenting additional and comprehensive information concerning promotional offers (Chopra, n.d.). Similarly, the shopping cart is also regarded as one of the major facets in the e-commerce business model. It assists the customers to maintain a track of the products purchased of those which have been selected for purchased through the electronic shopping car ts. It further allows the customers to check and recheck their purchases adding new items in the cart as well as, if wished, removing any products while making their ultimate purchases. This in turn can assist the organization to build up a productive relationship with its targeted customer group (King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, n.d.). Furthermore, the business transaction processing signifies the set of practice or actions of performed through online or e-commerce software. It is often regarded to act as a system which is performed as a base for other allied operations in the online e-commerce system and thus play a vital role in serving the customers in a better way. As customers are able to obtain superior quality assistance from the marketer through online sites owing to the virtues of transaction processing, organizational are also benefited in terms of enhanced customer satisfaction and loyalty (Becherer & Halstead, 2004). Answer 3 In this present competitive sce nario, the online business entrepreneurs must need to look after various criteria to facilitate the customers rendering them ease in accessing the site. Therefore, building the online website as per the customers’ convenience is one of the crucial factors to accumulate and sustain in the current competitive e-commerce portfolio. The initial step of instigating an e-business model is the registration of a special domain which should reflect the registered name of the organization. The next step

GSA Wants You Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

GSA Wants You - Essay Example As per the Small Business Act of 1953, small businesses should get a â€Å"fair percentage† of federal contracts and that small business should be provided with the â€Å"maximum practicable opportunity â€Å"to engage in federal contracting. Further, the above, act established the â€Å"SBA to help small businesses and to make sure that they receive a â€Å"fair percentage† of federal contracts. Further, Congress has established a twenty-three percentage of government-wide goal for awarding of contracts to small businesses. GSA strongly back the participation of small business concerns in the GSA Schedules Program. GSA, in this case, may use notice of service-Disabled Veteran –Owned Small Businesses Set-Aside, and in such cases, an order can be reserved for a single firm to be declared as qualified firm.GSA maintains a separate portal for submission of bids by small business electronically. Every probable GSA contractor must complete a chain of steps and cert ifications before the agency award access to the portal. A small-business owner should enroll for the compulsory GSA â€Å"Pathways to Success† online training course else he may also attend a workshop in person. A small business has to obtain DUNS number and Dun number recognizes the small business by its actual location by employing a uniform 9-digit credential code. The small business has to obtain an electronic digital signature. It is advised that the small business should create an electronic copy of the bid submitted to GSA eOffer portal

Ender and Valentine

Ender and Valentine Ender and Valentine Relations are really important to have in life, as it lets you share your life with someone. Without relations a person doesnt have an identity and becomes very lonely. In the book Enders Game by Orson Scott Card, a story has been told about a young man named Andrew Wiggin a.k.a. Ender. Being a third child wasnt easy for Ender, because people around him always misunderstood or underestimated him, which caused problems in his relationships. In these situations, his sister, Valentine, was the only one who supported him. Throughout the book he faced many problems, mainly isolation. In these times he would look up to no one but her sister. Valentine always supported, cared and fought for Ender, and thats what made their relationship grow stronger. Since Valentine cares for Ender very much, she acts like Enders mother throughout the book. Whenever there is a fight between Ender and Peter, his older brother, Valentine is the one who brings the fight to an end just like a mother. Everyone in the novel thinks that Valentine is the caretaker of Ender because when Ender gets his monitor removed, Valentine acts as his monitor. Valentine protects Ender from Peter by being Enders shadow. Noticing this behavior, Peter threatens Valentine, â€Å"You are his mother now, you better watch him, day and night. You better be there.† (Card 13) This scene takes place in chapter 2, when Peter, Ender and Valentine are playing games and Peter beats up Ender. Valentine always supported and fought for Ender. She is the only person Ender was related to. But their relationship becomes weaker when Ender decides to go to the battle school. The distance between earth and the battle school was now visible in Enders and Valentines relationship. This distance in their relationship, on the bright side, was a good idea because it helps Ender concentrate at battle school and make it to the command fleet. Valentine was never able to forget Ender and therefore writes letters to him every time. She celebrates Enders birthdays all by herself. This proves her one hundred percent commitment towards their relationship. On the other hand, Ender little known about his sister didnt think about Valentine that much. Due to his own problems at the battle school, he couldnt write back letters. Few years passes, they see each other again. This is when Ender is sent to earth for his vacation. While in the lake talking about their childhood, Valentine questions Ender, â€Å"So were strangers now? (Card 235)† Ender answers, â€Å"Arent we, Valentine? (Card 235)† They are completely unaware of each others lives but they still remember their childhood. This is the beauty of Enders and Valentines relationship. After some time spent together they were closer than before. Since Ender sees Valentine as his caretaker he obeys her and returns to the battle school. The gap in their relationship once again increases until the destruction of the buggers. Valentine towards the end gets very manipulative towards Ender and their relationship, â€Å"I know what youre thinking, Ender youre thinking that Im trying to control you just as much as Peter or Graff or any others. (Card 280)† This scene occurs when Ender is done with bugger world and wants to go back to the earth, but Valentine refuses to go because Peter was now in charge of the earth. Valentine knew that she would never see Ender again, if Ender went to the Earth and she went to the first colony. And thats why she tries to convince Ender to stay with her. This proves that she really cares about her little brother and loves him dearly. Valentine is also very cunning and manipulative like Peter. She tries to show Ender that she is not controlling, but she is. Due to Enders compassion for people, Valentine wants Ender to be with her forever after the destruction of bugger world. After discovering bugger queen, Ender decides to publish a book based on the story said by the bugger queen. Ender had full support of Valentine in publishing Speaker of the dead. She helped him inform people of earth that buggers werent really harmful. Valentine plays a very important character when it comes to Ender and his relationship, because Ender always obeys her. Valentine is the only person Ender has a good relationship with. The ups and downs always occur in a relationship, but thats what made their relationship grow stronger. Supporting each other was the key factor in their relationship. In this way Ender and Valentines relationship survives through the obstacles.

Decision Making Across the Organization

The Martinez Company has decided to introduce a new product and would like to evaluate the costs of manufacturing through capital intensive and labor intensive manufacturing methods to determine which of the two methods to employ. The values to be used in the evaluation for capital intensive manufacturing are direct materials at $5 per unit, direct labor at $6 per unit, a variable overhead of $3 per unit, and fixed manufacturing costs of $2,508,000. The values for material, labor, and overhead are summed to find the total variable cost of $14.The labor intensive values are direct materials at $5.50 per unit, direct labor at $8 per unit, a variable overhead of $4. 50 per unit, and fixed manufacturing costs of $1,538,000. The research department of Martinez recommended an introductory price unit sales price of $30. Incremental selling expenses are estimated to be $502,000 annually plus $2 for each unit sold regardless of the method used to manufacture. Capital Intensive To calculate ca pital intensive estimated break-even point in annual unit sales of the new product the contribution margin per unit and contribution margin per ratio are necessary.The equation for contribution margin per unit is Selling Price + Variable Cost, or $30 + $14, for a contribution margin per unit price of $16. The equation for contribution margin ration is Contribution Margin per Unit / Selling Price, or $16/$30, for a contribution margin ratio of 53%. The break-even point in units is calculated by dividing the fixed costs by the contribution margin per unit value, $2,508,000 / $16 = 156750 units as the break-even point. The fixed costs divided by the contribution margin ratio, $2,508,000 / 53% = $4,702,500 break-even point in dollars. Labor IntensiveTo calculate capital intensive estimated break-even point in annual unit sales of the new product the contribution margin per unit and contribution margin per ratio are necessary. The equation for contribution margin per unit is Selling Pric e + Variable Cost, or $30 + $18, for a contribution margin per unit price of $12. The equation for contribution margin ratio is Contribution Margin per Unit / Selling Price, or $12/$30, for a contribution margin ratio of 40%. The break-even point in units is calculated by dividing the fixed costs by the contribution margin per unit value, $1,538,000 / $12 = 128,167 units as the break-even point.The fixed costs divided by the contribution margin ratio, $1,538,000 / 40% = $3,845,000 break-even point in dollars. Unit Sales Volume of Indifference The volume of unit sales at which the Martinez Company would be indifferent between the two manufacturing methods is calculated as Sales = Variable Costs + Fixed Costs + Net Income. The value for sales is equivalent to the sales price, $30, multiplied by the number of units sold. Variable costs of $14 for capital intensive and $18 for labor intensive are also multiplied by the number of units sold.Fixed costs were provided at $2,508,000 for cap ital intensive and $1,538,000 for labor intensive. Net income is assumed to be $0. The equation values for 180,000 units under capital intensive manufacturing and 240,000 under labor intensive manufacturing is the volume of units for each method to equal sales of $2,880,000, the point at which the annual unit sales volume would be indifferent. Conclusion Evaluating the costs of manufacturing help management to make crucial decisions about methods of manufacturing that will result in profit for the business.Evaluating the capital intensive manufacturing method versus the labor intensive method provides the values necessary to make business decisions. The circumstances in which the Martinez Company would employ a capital intensive manufacturing method for the new product, based on the numbers provided in the scenario, would be if the contribution margin and per unit cost were cheaper than the labor intensive values. In this scenario, the labor intensive values offer a smaller break-ev en point value for units and dollars than the capital intensive method of manufacturing. Decision Making Across the Organization The Martinez Company has decided to introduce a new product and would like to evaluate the costs of manufacturing through capital intensive and labor intensive manufacturing methods to determine which of the two methods to employ. The values to be used in the evaluation for capital intensive manufacturing are direct materials at $5 per unit, direct labor at $6 per unit, a variable overhead of $3 per unit, and fixed manufacturing costs of $2,508,000. The values for material, labor, and overhead are summed to find the total variable cost of $14.The labor intensive values are direct materials at $5.50 per unit, direct labor at $8 per unit, a variable overhead of $4.50 per unit, and fixed manufacturing costs of $1,538,000. The research department of Martinez recommended an introductory price unit sales price of $30. Incremental selling expenses are estimated to be $502,000 annually plus $2 for each unit sold regardless of the method used to manufacture. Capital IntensiveTo calculate capi tal intensive estimated break-even point in annual unit sales of the new product the contribution margin per unit and contribution margin per ratio are necessary. The equation for contribution margin per unit is Selling Price + Variable Cost, or $30 + $14, for a contribution margin per unit price of $16. The equation for contribution margin ration is Contribution Margin per Unit / Selling Price, or $16/$30, for a contribution margin ratio of 53%.The break-even point in units is calculated by dividing the fixed costs by the contribution margin per unit value, $2,508,000 / $16 = 156750 units as the break-even point. The fixed costs divided by the contribution margin ratio, $2,508,000 / 53% = $4,702,500 break-even point in dollars. Labor IntensiveTo calculate capital intensive estimated break-even point in annual unit sales of the new product the contribution margin per unit and contribution  margin per ratio are necessary. The equation for contribution margin per unit is Selling Pri ce + Variable Cost, or $30 + $18, for a contribution margin per unit price of $12.The equation for contribution margin ratio is Contribution Margin per Unit / Selling Price, or $12/$30, for a contribution margin ratio of 40%. The break-even point in units is calculated by dividing the fixed costs by the contribution margin per unit value, $1,538,000 / $12 = 128,167 units as the break-even point. The fixed costs divided by the contribution margin ratio, $1,538,000 / 40% = $3,845,000 break-even point in dollars. Unit Sales Volume of IndifferenceThe volume of unit sales at which the Martinez Company would be indifferent between the two manufacturing methods is calculated as Sales = Variable Costs + Fixed Costs + Net Income. The value for sales is equivalent to the sales price, $30, multiplied by the number of units sold. Variable costs of $14 for capital intensive and $18 for labor intensive are also multiplied by the number of units sold. Fixed costs were provided at $2,508,000 for ca pital intensive and $1,538,000 for labor intensive.Net income is assumed to be $0. The equation values for 180,000 units under capital intensive manufacturing and 240,000 under labor intensive manufacturing is the volume of units for each method to equal sales of $2,880,000, the point at which the annual unit sales volume would be indifferent.ConclusionEvaluating the costs of manufacturing help management to make crucial decisions about methods of manufacturing that will result in profit for the business. Evaluating the capital intensive manufacturing method versus the labor intensive method provides the values necessary to make business decisions.The circumstances in which the Martinez Company would employ a capital intensive manufacturing method for the new product, based on the numbers provided in the scenario, would be if the contribution margin and per unit cost were cheaper than the labor intensive values. In this scenario, the labor intensive values offer a smaller break-even point value for units and dollars than the capital intensive method of manufacturing.

Reducing Carbon Emission From Existing Domestic Buildings Environmental Sciences Essay

Climate alteration brought about by planetary heating is one of the biggest menaces to mankind ‘s endurance. Due to human activity the temperature of the Earth ‘s surface has increased by approximately 1.4A °F during the last 90-100 old ages. Scientists have identified that nursery gases are the chief ground we are sing planetary heating. The last authorities was trying to battle clime alteration by puting one-year marks for the decrease of C dioxide emanations until 2050 by puting responsibilities on the Prime Minister sing the coverage on and accomplishment of those marks ; to stipulate processs to be followed if the marks are non met ; to stipulate certain maps of and supply certain powers to Members of Parliament with respect to guaranting C dioxide emanations are reduced and to put sectored decrease marks and marks for energy efficiency. This seems really easy in chief but in world the authorities has failed since the Kyoto Protocol. One cardinal country where they are neglecting is in the lodging sector as the purposes are chiefly focused on new places instead than the bing lodging stock. By the twelvemonth 2050 there will be 21 million places in demand of an ascent to cut down the C emanations being released into the ambiance. In this thesis we will analyze the grounds for planetary heating and clime alteration, what authorities enterprises have been introduced and what solutions can, hold and will be implemented to cut down C emanations with an accent on renewable engineerings. Introduction The authorities and industry must cut down their C emanations from the United Kingdoms domestic sector in order to run into their clime alteration marks. 30 % of all the United Kingdoms energy comes from the domestic sector and in bend histories 45 % of all emanations. ( 2008 Energy Technologies Institute LLP-Part of the low C invention group ) . By the twelvemonth 2050 there will be about 32 million homes of which 21 million will necessitate renovation as they will be the bing lodging stock. The authorities have set a mark of an 80 % decrease in C emanations by 2050 and in order to accomplish this end they will hold to put in insularity, educate homeowners on ways to utilize energy more expeditiously, use more low energy merchandises and provide energy from renewable beginnings. Purpose The chief purpose of this survey is to analyze ways to cut down C emanations from the United Kingdoms bing lodging stock. Aims The chief aims of this survey to analyze: A brief history of planetary heating and clime alteration What authorities statute law is in topographic point to cut down C emanations The current energy efficiency of the United Kingdoms bing lodging stock What part renewable energy can do towards cut downing C emanationsResearch methodological analysisThe aims outlined antecedently will give the reader a better apprehension of the capable countries. The research carried out will be a 50 – 50 split between qualitative and quantitative research. ‘Qualitative research is subjective in nature. It is research that can non be measured because it is non based on facts. It is based on people beliefs, their feelings and their ain personal sentiments and experiences ‘ . ( Naoum 2007 2nd edition ) ‘Quantitative research is ‘objective ‘ in nature. It is research that is based on factual information that can be proven. It could be consequences from trials, studies etc that can be analysed ‘ . ( Naoum 2007 2nd edition ) ‘Primary literature is research that includes academic diary, published original work and proficient documents ‘ . AND ‘secondary literature beginnings are beginnings such as text books and newspaper articles ‘ ( ( Naoum 2007 2nd edition )Dissertation StructureThe research into my purpose and aim will supply a greater deepness of apprehension of each capable country. The survey will give a background into the demand for an energy efficient lodging stock including looking at grounds for planetary heating and clime alteration. It will besides discourse authorities enterprises and energy usage in the domestic sector every bit good as the grounds why it is hard to accomplish the purposes. The bing lodging stock will be researched to determine their energy efficiency before and after renovation. Some of the primary literature I plan to utilize include ; Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The EU ‘s Contribution to Determining A Future Global Climate Change Regime The Sixth Environment Action Programme of the European Community 2002-2012 Our Energy Future – Making a Low Carbon Economy Action in the UK – The UK Climate Change Programme European Buildings Directive Met office action on carbon dioxide Planing for micro renewables – Renewable energy engineerings, Scots Executive, Development Department HM Government- Renewable Energy Strategy Some of the Secondary Beginnings I plan to utilize include ; Environmental scientific discipline in edifices 6th Edition ( Randall McMullan ) CIBSE – Energy and C emanations ordinances – A usher to execution The range for cut downing C emanations from lodging ( J.Henderson & A ; L. Shorrock )Literature ReviewGlobal heating and Climate ChangePeoples are the chief cause of clime alteration. 40 % of all co2 emanations come from nursery gases such as C dioxide and methane through energy usage in the place, driving and air travel. Global clime alteration occurs of course through oceans, alterations in the earths orbit and the suns energy but there is grounds that the nursery consequence is made worse by adult males actions.What alterations have been observed?planetary temperature addition: +0.75A °C over the past century with 2000-2010 the warmest decennary on record rainfall forms: wet parts of the universe are acquiring wetting agent, and dry parts acquiring desiccant humidness: additions over the lastA two to threeA decennaries make utmost rainfall and deluging more likely warming oceans: temperature additions in the last 50 old ages in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans are non linked natural fluctuations salt: increased vaporization is doing the Atlantic saltier in sub-tropical latitudes sea-ice: summer Arctic sea-ice is worsening by 600,000 kmA? per decennary ( the country of Madagascar ) , a long-run tendency merely explicable by human influencesHow the grounds stacks upScientists have used sophisticated methods to place these long-run alterations, and to so see: are these alterations due to natural variableness? ( alterations in energy from the Sun, volcanic eruptions, or natural rhythms such as El Nino ) if non, is at that place grounds that human activity could be to fault? Peter Stott, Head of Climate Monitoring and Attribution at the Met Office, said: â€Å" The scientific discipline reveals a consistent image of planetary alteration that clearly bears the fingerprint of semisynthetic nursery gas emanations. This shows the grounds of clime alteration has gone beyond temperature additions -A it is now seeable across our clime system and all parts of the planet. † The mean individual thinks that the conditions and clime alteration are the same but this is non the instance. Weather is rain, hail, sleet, snow and air current with changing temperatures that change daily, where as clime alteration is a survey of the conditions and it changes over clip. The nursery effect is the natural procedure of the Earths atmosphere leting in some of the energy we receive from the Sun ( UV and seeable visible radiation ) and halting it being transmitted back out into infinite ( infrared radiation the nursery consequence is the natural procedure. This makes the Earth warm plenty for people to populate. Although there have been rather stable degrees of nursery gases for many old ages, industrial and domestic energy usage has upset the balance with the grounds of clime alteration now being seen right across the planet with temperature additions and runing ice caps doing mayhem with our eco-system.Energy UseWorlds use energy such as coal, gas and oil everyday and everytime they do so carbon monoxide and other gases are absorbed by the ambiance. The natural rhythm was for the C dioxide to be reabsorbed by the workss and trees. However, we are firing so much fuel, and with worlds cutting down our rain forests. the trees and workss can no longer get by. As the increased C dioxide degrees rise they are being trapped within our atmosphere doing the temperature to lift. This is planetary heating. As the planetary temperature is lifting daily we are seeing more inundations and utmost conditions such as twisters and hurricanes. To seek to battle this we have to cut down the sum of fossil fuels we are utilizing. ( The Carbon Account ) We burn fossil fuels to make energy. From maintaining warm in our house, to fuelling our autos, to turning our nutrient, to fabricate our MP3 participants, energy is used. It is either burned straight ( gas is burnt in your boiler for illustration, and gasoline is burnt in your auto ) or it is burnt in a power station to drive turbines which generate electricity. Fossil fuels are besides burnt at assorted phases in the procedure of making nutrient, merchandises and services for our ingestion. The entire C which we as persons are responsible for is called our C footmark. ( The Carbon Account )Existing lodging stockEven presuming the Government meets its committednesss to increase lodging supply, estimates suggest that by 2050, merely one tierce of the lodging stock will hold been built after 2005. New physique represents merely about 1 % of the entire lodging stock each twelvemonth. Therefore, a significant proportion of the bing lodging stock has been built to take down energy effici ency criterions and later is responsible for the bulk of emanations from domestic homes.Barriers to energy efficiencyIf we are viciously honest the mean person is non interested in upgrading their places due to climate alteration. They are more interested if the coveted result is a direct benefit. i.e. Spending on pit wall insularity means they will hold less for themselves. They normally feel that the ‘hassle ‘ factor is excessively great. Retailers B & A ; Q stated that ‘the person is non focussed simply on monetary value but besides on the sensed attempt required and break involved in following energy salvaging engineerings within the place ‘ . It claimed that the direct benefits to the person of following energy efficiency steps tend non to be recognised because of ‘the disassociation between energy usage and costs and the consequence of lifting energy monetary values in dissembling the impact of nest eggs ‘ . The authorities section for environment, nutrient and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) besides observed that: ‘The obstructions are multiple and disputing. One obstruction is consumer inactivity due to the fuss factor, high upfront costs, and hapless information. Often consumers are confused because they are capable to multiple messages coming from multiple beginnings and they do non hold a model for measuring the comparative value and impact of different steps. Access to moo cost fundss is another issue, peculiarly for more expensive steps ‘ . Energy economy and energy efficiency are the first two steps listed in Defra ‘s hierarchy of countries for single behavioral alteration. However, some 8.5m suited places still lack pit wall insularity whilst 50 % of older belongingss are unsuitable for such betterment. Against the background in which new edifices merely account for about 1 % of the entire lodging stock each twelvemonth, greater precedence must be given to cut downing the CO2 emanations associated with the bing lodging stock. Particular focal point must be given to bing places with solid walls or level roofs that are hard to insulate. Where energy efficiency steps in bing places are merely impractical or excessively expensive, an alternate attack is to include the incorporation of renewable electricity and/or heat engineerings. This could either be within single homes ( e.g. solar H2O heating ) or to provide groups of belongingss or a community ( e.g. solar photovoltaic and air current coevals ; combined heat an d power ) .Background to climate alteration extenuationThe Kyoto ProtocolThe overarching international clime alteration understanding is the 1997 Kyoto Protoco ( 4 ) l. The Protocol requires the developed states jointly to cut down 1990 C emanations by 5.2 % over the conformity period of 2008-2012. The understanding requires developed states to cut down their nursery gas ( GHG ) emanations but allows these states to utilize a series of flexible mechanisms. Cardinal to these mechanisms is 'emissions merchandising ‘ which enables states to purchase and sell C allowances. In add-on, states can utilize either the ‘clean development mechanism ‘ ( CDM ) or ‘joint execution ‘ ( JI ) . Both the CDM and JI enable states to put in GHG decrease undertakings in other states where the costs may be less than in their domestic market. The ensuing GHG decreases can so be set against the investor state ‘s national GHG stock list. CDM and JI differ in that CDM is between a developed and developing county whereas JI is between two developed states. The Kyoto Protocol requires the European Union to cut its 1990 C emanations by 8 % by the conformity period of 2008-2012. The Kyoto pact passed into international jurisprudence in 2004.European Union contextThe EU Acts of the Apostless on behalf of all member provinces with respect to environmental issues. The EU sets pan-European environmental policy through Directives and Regulations. The EU negotiated as a individual entity at the Kyoto conference. It agreed an 8 % decrease mark for the EU. Each member province later agreed to its ain mark, with states such as the UK and Germany committing to cut down C emanations by more than the % mark whilst states such as Portugal and Ireland were allowed to increase their emanations. These comparative marks reflected the perceived relationship between development, growing and C emanations. The EU Climate Change policy purposes to restrict the planetary temperature rise to no more than 2K on norm. In February 2007 the European Union Energy Efficiency Action Plan agreed a series of ambitious marks for 2020 ( 5 ) : a 20 % addition in energy efficiency a 20 % decrease in nursery gas emanations across the EU, as compared with 1990 degrees, or 30 % if other developed states agree to take similar action a binding mark to increase the usage of renewable energy to 20 % of all energy used an addition in the usage of biofuels, to 10 % of all fuel used in conveyance. The EU ‘s precedence countries put frontward in 2007 are as follows: Introduction of steps to increase competition, promote investing and hike interconnectednesss between national energy grids. Diversification of energy beginnings and conveyance paths, and an betterment in response systems to better the security of supply. Negotiation of a new pact model for energy co-operation with Russia, and to better dealingss with energy-rich states in Central Asia and North Africa. Introduction of steps to do conveyance, electrical contraptions and edifices more energy efficient. Support of research to better the cost effectivity of renewable energy and low-carbon engineering. Construction of 12 presentation sustainable fossil fuel workss, showing engineerings such as such as C segregation and gaining control. In its 6th Environmental Action Plan ( 6 ) ( 2002-2012 ) , the EU produced ‘roadmaps ‘ for a assortment of different environmental countries including clime alteration. A precedence of the clime alteration roadmap was the debut of the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive ( 1 ) ( EPBD ) .United Kingdom contextUnder the Kyoto Protocol, the UK agreed to cut down its nursery gas emanations by 12.5 % ( based on 1990 emanations ) . The UK is predicted to transcend its Kyoto mark and accomplish a decrease of 23.6 % below its 1990 degree ( 7 ) . The UK has a domestic mark to cut down C dioxide emanations by 20 % by 2010 relation to 1990 degrees but by 2005 had achieved merely a 6.4 % decrease. The 2003 Energy White Paper ( 8 ) set a new longer term mark of a 60 % cut in C emanations by 2050. The cardinal UK policies are set out in the UK Climate Change Programme ( 9 ) .The Energy Performance of Buildings DirectiveThe EPBD was adopted by the EU on 4th January2003 and had to be implemented by the European member provinces at the latest on January 4th 2006. It commits the EU to cut down CO2 by 8 % by 2010, to 5.2 % below 1990 degrees. The chief focal point of the papers is to better the energy public presentation of edifices while taking into history outdoor and indoor conditions and cost effectivity ( www.diag.org.uk ) It applies to both the residential and public sector with the chief points as follows: To place a common methodological analysis for ciphering the energy public presentation of edifices Provide lower limit criterions for energy public presentation in edifices. This besides applies to the redevelopment of bing edifices with a entire surface country greater than 1000m2. This is presently under reappraisal to include any bing edifices that undergo major redevelopments in order to run into minimal energy public presentation demands ( The ( EU ) European Energy Performance of Buildings Directive ( EPBD ) Directive Implementation Advisory Group ( www.diag.org.uk ) 2002 Energy public presentation certifications to be provided on all belongingss on alteration of tenancy Minimum energy public presentation demands to be set in regard of proficient edifice systems, e.g. boilers, air-conditioning units.Alternate and Renewable EnergyIncreased usage of renewable energy, including micro-renewables, can do an of import part to attempts to cut down C emanations in support of clime alteration and renewable energy aims. The Scots Executive is committed to doing an just part to the UK Kyoto mark to cut down 1990 degrees of nursery gas emanations by 12.5 % by 2012, and has set a mark that 40 % of electricity generated in Scotland should come from renewable beginnings by 2020. ( Planing for micro renewables – Renewable energy engineerings, Scottish Executive, Development Department ) Microgeneration is widely accepted to be the production of heat ( less than 45 kilowatt capacity ) and/or electricity ( less than 50kW capacity ) from zero or low C beginning engineerings. In add-on to the C benefits, increased usage of micro-renewables dramas an of import portion in diversifying our energy mix guaranting security of energy supply. It can let energy to be produced and consumed locally, assist relieve fuel poorness ( particularly in off-gas web countries ) and play a portion in run intoing renewable energy marks. Progresss in micro-renewable engineerings and increasing consciousness of the benefits of renewables have helped guarantee a steady rise in their usage across Scotland. Micro renewables can make local employment, in footings of fabrication and installing and in supplying the biomass fuel supply concatenation. There are a broad scope of micro-renewable engineerings which can be retrofitted to bing edifices.Land Source Heat PumpsThe mean land temperature merely below the surface, in the UK is between 8 °C and 13 °C, this temperature remains changeless throughout the twelvemonth. Ground beginning heat pumps ( GSHP ) are a agencies of tapping into and using this resource. GSHP were invented more than 50 old ages ago, and uninterrupted development has greatly improved their efficiency and dependability. It is now a proven, cost-efficient, safe and environmentally friendly alternate to fossil fuels, that is cost-efficient for certain commercial and domestic applications, peculiarly where brinies gas is non available. The market for GSHP is presently little but turning – they are presently more common in the USA and the remainder of Europe. The entire figure of bing installings in the UK is estimated at around 600-700 units. The chief market for GSHP are domestic lodging ( which makes it ideal for retrofitting bing lodging ) , commercial belongingss non connected to the natural gas web and commercial industrial belongingss with stable heat demand. It is estimated that there is the possible for the figure of installings to increase. GSHP are most likely to be an option where there is no entree to natural gas and so the option may be oil or direct electric warming ( storage warmers ) . Heat pumps land cringles can be laid in the land or in H2O such as rivers, lakes or pools.How Do They WorkTo entree thermic energy, spirals or cringles of particular class pipe demand to be buried in the land either in horizontal trenches or perpendicular boreholes. Horizontal trenches are a cheaper option and by and large used where there is sufficient infinite. Where there is non adequate land to make horizontal trenches, perpendicular boreholes can be used, these usually require to travel down at least 60 metres and are the more expensive option, but will supply higher efficiencies since the temperature of the Earth is higher at greater deepnesss, and less power is needed to pump the fluid around the circuit. The length and size of land cringles is designed to fit the heating demands of the belongings. The trenches or boreholes required for the land loops can be dug and backfilled by a standard Earth excavator. Systems operate by go arounding H2O ( or another fluid ) through pipes buried in theground. The H2O in the pipes is lower than the environing land and so it warms up somewhat. This low class heat is transferred to a heat pump, which raises the temperature to around 50A °C. The heat pumps typically supplying 4 units of energy from 1 unit of electricity. The bing will necessitate sufficient land available for installing of the land works. The dimensions of trenches or boreholes will change between makers. The land above where heat pipes are installed can be used for unfastened infinite or covered over with difficult stuffs. Where there are bing lakes or pools or where it is proposed to put in Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems ( SUDS ) , the chance to put in land beginning heat pumps beneath the surface of the H2O should be considered. Similarly in larger developments with unfastened infinite demands, land beginning heat pumps could be laid beneath greeenspaces.Biomass EnergyBiomass is an alternate solid fuel to the conventional dodo fuels and has an impact on C emanations that is near to impersonal. The chief benefit of biomass engineering is the significantly reduced degree of C emanations owing to the fuel carrying nothing ( or really near to zero ) C load. Over their lifecycle, biomass fuels sourced and processed from sustainable beginnings within 25 stat mis of the biomass works can be regarded as C impersonal and therefore the fuel carries no C load. Many biomass fuels transported for greater distances can besides be regarded as C neutral because the alternate finish of the fuel is frequently land-fill where it would break up to bring forth methane, which is significantly more powerful as a nursery gas than CO2. Assorted types of biomass fuel are in usage, the most common being the woody biomass, which includes forest residues such as tree cuttings, and energy harvests such as willow short rotary motion brush. Biomass is converted into a manageable signifier that can be straight fed to the heat or power coevals works, therefore replacing fossil fuel. As a consequence, applications can run from large-scale heating boilers to single house room warmers to combined heat and power coevals ( CHP ) . For edifice applications, the fuel normally takes the signifier of wood french friess, logs and pellets. Wood pellets are basically compacted high-density wood with low wet content, therefore holding a higher calorific value per unit volume or weight. Supply and storage of the biomass fuel should be carefully considered particularly for larger workss. The typical applications are: Biomass boilers replacing standard gas- or oil-fired boilers for infinite warming and hot H2O ( for single edifices or territory heating systems ) . Standalone room warmers for infinite warming. Stoves with back boilers, providing domestic hot H2O. Biomass CHP for heat and electricity coevals Appliances can accomplish efficiencies of more that 80 % . Sizes start at 3 5kW capacity for room warmers and travel up to 100s of kilowatt or MW for industrial-scale workss and community energy strategies. Many of the applications are sized to run into a specific base burden, with extra top-up and back-up provided by gas boilers. Although biomass is a widespread engineering in many European and North American states, in the UK the market is non yet good developed. However, applications of small-scale boilers and single room warmers are increasing. These devices can run on logs, wood bit or pellets, with the latter designed for either manual or automatic provender. An incorporate hot H2O storage armored combat vehicle or an collector can enable the supply of heat to be decoupled from the existent burning of the fuel. The capital cost of machine-controlled biomass heating systems is significantly greater than that of conventional 1s, chiefly because of the more complicated feeding mechanisms and the presently smaller market for biomass contraptions. A typical 1OkW automated domestic biomass range would be between ?1,500 and ?2,000, and the fuel monetary values are around ?60-65 per metric ton of woodchip ( 25 % wet content ) and ?160-200 per metric ton of delivered wood pellets. Biomass CHP workss are suited for larger graduated table undertakings and look feasible at capacities above 0.5MW. Sizing demands to reflect the proportion of heat demand planned to be met by the CHP.Solar EnergyEnergy from the Sun has been harnessed for 1000s of old ages. Scotland has one of the best conditions in Europe for doing usage of solar energy. This may look surprising, as solar radiation degrees are comparatively lower than in other European states. This is, nevertheless, offset by the fact that we heat our places for more months of the twelvemonth, leting better use of available solar energy overall. Solar energy can be utilised in several ways, includin g inactive solar design, solar hot H2O systems and photo-voltaic cells ( PV ) , which generate electricity from solar radiation. The sum of electricity that can be produced from solar panels will change with the strength of sunshine, the type of engineering being used, and any overshadowing by trees or edifices. However, even on the cloudiest yearss energy comes from indirect sunshine, called diffuse solar radiation. On a cloudy twenty-four hours PV cells can bring forth up to 30 % of the power end product of a cheery twenty-four hours. However, there is still an inevitable mismatch between peak handiness and peak demand of energy. This deficit can be overcome by uniting solar energy with a complementary engineering such as air current which has a different seasonal form.CO2 decrease utilizing Solar EnergyBoth energy and C emanations nest eggs can be made with solar engineerings. The mean domestic solar hot H2O system can cut down CO2 emanations by 0.25-0.5 metric ton per twelvemont h, depending on the fuel replaced, and supply about all of a place ‘s hot waterduring the summer months.Cost of Solar EnergySolar PV is presently one of the most expensive engineerings, nevertheless, monetary values of solar power systems have steadily fallen over the past decennary and are anticipated to go on to fall as the engineering progresss and economic systems of graduated table occur. They have proved to be really dependable and can hold a design life of 25 old ages or more. Costss vary due to a scope of factors such as size of aggregator, type of roof and geographic location. Solar panels by and large require really small care other than guaranting they are kept comparatively clean, look intoing that shadiness from trees has non become a job and where applicable inspecting the battery battalions.Types of SystemsSolar Hot Water SystemsSolar thermal and, particularly, active Solar Domestic Hot Water ( SDHW ) warming is a well-established renewable energy system in many states outside the UK. It can be one of the most cost-efficient renewable energy systems available. Solar hot H2O systems have been available in the UK since the 1970s and the engineering is now good developed with a big pick of equipment to accommodate many applications. Solar hot H2O systems are chiefly used for domestic H2O heating but can besides be used in other scenes such as light industrial, agricultural usage and swimming pools. In the UK, an mean family will cut down its one-year energy ingestion degrees for supplying hot H2O by about 50 % after put ining a solar hot H2O system. For a individual typical house, for case, a suited H2O warming system would busy 2.5-4m2 of roof infinite. The cost would be ?l,500-?5,000 for a level home base system that will supply around 50 % of the typical hot H2O demand, and up to ?5,000 for an evacuated tubing system that will supply around 60 % . Solar hot H2O systems work on the rule of H2O being pumped through the solar panel and heated by solar energy when the Sun is reflecting. This het H2O so flows through a heat money changer, warming the stored H2O in the hot cylinder. In consequence this serves to pre-heat the H2O so that less energy is required from traditional beginnings such as the boiler. The aggregators are soundless and generate no emanations. The cardinal constituent in a solar hot H2O system is the aggregator. There are four different types of solar aggregators ; Glazed selective surface level home base systems glazed non-selective level home base systems glassless plastic level home base aggregators ( largely used for swimming pool warming ) evacuated tubing systems Flat Plate Collectors These are the simplest and most common signifier of solar hot H2O warming panels. They are made from a sheet of metal painted black which absorbs the Sun ‘s energy. The metal sheet is embedded in an insulated box and covered with glass or clear plastic on the forepart. Water is fed through the panel in pipes attached to the metal sheet and picks up the heat in the metal. These types of systems are sometimes described as holding a similar visual aspect as a sky-light, although they tend to be larger than a typical fanlight. Flat home base aggregators can be positioned on roofs or walls.Evacuated Tube CollectorsThese are made of rows of analogue, crystalline glass tubings. Inside each tubing is a level or curved metal home base, attached to a pipe. They are more efficient because heat loss by convection is negligible compared to the level home base aggregator system. They therefore tend to necessitate less country, but can be more expensive.Photo-Voltaic ( PV )PV systems convert solar radiation into electricity. The greater the strength of the visible radiation, the greater the flow of electricity. PV solar panels may change in visual aspect, but they are by and large dark in coloring material and have low brooding belongingss. They can besides change in size and are normally grouped together to organize a PV array to run into the needed end product of electricity. A typical PV array on a home house will cover an country of between 9-18m2. They have no moving parts, generate no noise or emanations, and can be integrated into all types of edifices – houses, commercial and public edifices. PV solar panels can either be mounted on constructions or free-standing, and come in a scope of signifiers such as faculties, laminates and solar tiles. PV solar panels or tile systems can be used in topographic point of, or in add-on to, traditional roof or facade stuffs. They can intermix in with the built environment to understate the aesthetic impact on the edifi ce. These types of merchandises can function a double map: as edifice stuff and as a beginning of renewable energy. They may be installed on bing constructions, although costs may be lower if they are integrated into the design of new constructions. Presently, a PV system will be between ?4.5k and ?1Ok per kWp, and often portion of this cost can be offset owing to the supplanting of a conventional facing stuff. Costss have fallen significantly since the first systems were installed and are predicted to fall farther still. Deployment in the UK had started with several building-integrated field test strategies and a major presentation programme. While individual crystal Si remains the most efficient level home base engineering ( 1 5-1 6 % transition efficiency ) , it besides has the least possible for cost decrease. PV cells made from multicrystalline Si have become popular as they are less expensive to bring forth, although they have a somewhat lower efficiency. Thin movie faculties are constructed by lodging highly thin beds of light-sensitive stuffs on a low-priced backup such as glass, unstained steel or plastic. As much less semiconducting material stuff is required than for crystalline Si cells, stuff costs are potentially much lower. Efficiencies are much lower, around 4-5 % , although this can be boosted to 8-10 % by.depositing two or three beds of thin movie stuff. Thin movie production besides requires less managing as the movies are produced as big, complete faculties and non as single cells that have to be mounted in frames and wired together. Hence, there is the possible for important cost decreases with volume production. In future, stuffs such as dye-sensitised polymers may offer very-low-cost PV stuffs, but the efficiency of these stuffs demands to be improved from their present low degrees ( 1-2 % ) . Since PVs generate DC end product, an inverter and other equipment is needed to present the power to a edifice or the grid in an acceptable AC signifier. The cost of the inverter and these ‘Balance Of System ‘ ( BOS ) constituents can near 50 % of the entire cost of a PV system. Hence, simplification and cost decreases in these constituents over the coming old ages will besides be necessary to do PV systems low-cost.Micro combined heat and power ( micro CHP )What is micro CHP?‘Micro-CHP ‘ bases for micro combined heat and power. This refers to a warming engineering which generates heat and electricity at the same time, from the same energy beginning, in single places or edifices. The chief end product of a micro-CHP system is heat with some electricity coevals, at a typical ratio of approximately 6:1 for domestic contraptions. Any electricity generated and non used in the place can be exported back to the grid. A typical domestic system is expected to hold the possible to bring forth up to 1kW of electricity per hr one time warmed up. This would be plenty to power the lighting and contraptions in a typical place. The sum of electricity generated finally depends on how long the system is running. Most domestic micro-CHP systems today use mains gas or LPG as a warming fuel, although they can besides be powered by oil or bio fuels. While gas and oil are non renewable energy beginnings ( they are fossil fuels ) , the engineering is still considered to be a ‘low C engineering ‘ because it is more efficient than merely firing the dodo fuel for heat and acquiring electricity from the national grid. Micro-CHP systems are comparable in size and form to an ordinary, modern, domestic boiler and can be wall hung like most boilers, or floor standing. Servicing costs and care are estimated to be similar to a standard boiler – although a specializer will be required. The lone difference to a standard boiler is that they are able to bring forth electricity while they are heating H2O.A What are the benefits?Micro-CHP has a figure of benefits, including:Electricity coevals as a byproduct of heatWhen the micro-CHP is bring forthing heat, the internal engine or fuel celll will besides bring forth electricity to be used in your place ( or exported ) .Carbon nest eggsBy bring forthing electricity on-site you are salvaging important sums of C as there are minimum losingss happening as compared with the grid.Fiscal incomeMicro-CHP is eligible for Feed-in Tariffs and you will gain 10p for each kWh generated by your system. You will besides have 3p for each kWh you export.Installation is easyThere is really small complexness to put ining a micro-CHP unit. If you already have a conventional boiler so a micro-CHP unit should be able to replace it as it ‘s approximately the same size. Given the electricity generated, an lineman will besides be involved w ith the installing but this is something the installer will organize.A How does micro CHP work?There are 3 chief micro-CHP engineerings. The difference is the manner in which they generate electricity, which can be done in the undermentioned ways: Stirling engine Fuel cell Internal burning engine Stirling Engine micro-CHP is new to the market, although the principal of the Stirling engine is good established. By and large Stirling engine micro CHP requires a short warm up period before they start bring forthing electrical power. Stirling engines are typically for edifices with smaller heat demands and would be appropriate for domestic applications in the UK. The latest Stirling engine based micro CHP units allow electricity to be generated earlier after being turned on, and are more efficient at bring forthing heat. Stirling engine micro-CHP contraptions are now being installed in places in the UK. Fuel cell CHP engineering is new to the market in the UK and globally. Fuel cells work by taking energy from fuel at a chemical degree instead than firing it. The engineering is still at developmental phase and non presently available to consumers. Internal burning engine CHP is the most proved engineering. These are basically, and sometimes literally, truck diesel engines modified to run on natural gas or warming oil, which are connected straight to an electrical generator. Heat is so taken from the engine ‘s cooling H2O and fumes manifold. By and large they produce twice every bit much heat as electrical power and have, to day of the month, been chiefly used in larger commercial-scale applications in the UK.A Geting the most out of a micro CHPMicro-CHP systems should ever be installed and run to run into the warming demands of the edifice, instead than to bring forth more heat than is needed merely to run into electricity demand. The electricity generated should be treated as a utile byproduct of heat coevals. For this ground, electricity will merely be generated when there is a heat demand. Most domestic micro CHP systems will hold two burners, one little ( engine burner ) and one big ( auxiliary burner ) . Electricity will be produced whist utilizing a little burner, so pull offing the usage of your warming and hot H2O will do certain you get the best ratio of heat to electricity as possible. For illustration, if you heat hot H2O entirely so the boiler will merely utilize the little burner and generate electricity. However, if you want to heat hot H2O and H2O for infinite warming at the same clip the boiler may hold to utilize the larger burner so use more gas and non bring forth any extra electricity than if you were merely utilizing the little burner entirely. If the heat end product additions beyond 6kW the micro-CHP will non bring forth extra electricity above 1kW. Before sing micro CHP you should carefully reexamine your one-year heat ingestion. Since they merely generate electricity when there is a heat demand, Micro-CHP systems are most cost effectual in houses with big heat demands that can non be reduced by other agencies such as upgrading insularity, draft proofing and other low C heat engineerings such as wood ranges. For difficult to handle belongingss, such as older edifices, which have a higher than normal heat burden and where it ‘s really hard to handle so a micro-CHP unit may be an option. ( Energy Saving Trust UK Scotland )Wind energy engineeringWind power is the most successful and fastest distributing renewable energy engineering in the UK with a figure of single and group installings of changing size, capacity and location. Traditionally, turbines are installed in non-urban countries with a strong tendency for big offshore air current farms. In analogue with the design and development of ever-bigger machines, which are deemed to be more efficient and cost-efficient, it is being progressively recognised that smaller devices installed at the point of usage, i.e. urban scenes, can play an of import function in cut downing C emanations if they become mainstream. At present there is a broad scope of available off-the-rack air current merchandises, many manufactured in the UK and EU with proven good public presentation and lastingness. The dominant type is horizontal axis air current turbines ( HAWT ) , which are typically ground mounted. Vertical axis air current turbines ( VAWT ) have limited market presence and there is a tradeoff between lower efficiency and potentially higher opposition to extreme conditions. Capacity ranges from 500W to more than 1 SMW, but, for practical intents and in built-up countries in peculiar, machines of more than 1 kilowatts and below 500kW are likely to be considered. Wind engineering is besides presently one of the most cost-efficient renewable energy engineerings, which is attributable to the big graduated table of installings cut downing the unit end product cost. Individual edifice or community wind undertakings, although smaller, have the advantage of feeding electricity straight into the edifice ‘s electricity circuit, therefore saving dearly-won distribution web development and avoiding distribution losingss. The downside is the still high capital cost per kilowatt installed for smaller turbines, plus location restraints, such as ocular invasion and noise. The air current government in urban countries is besides a concern owing to higher air current turbulency which reduces the possible electricity end product. In most instances, wind turbines are connected to the electricity grid and all generated energy is used irrespective of the edifice demand fluctuations. The end product mostly depends on the air current velocity and the correla tivity between the two is a cube map. This means that in short periods of above-average air current speeds the coevals increases exponentially. As a consequence, it is hard to do precise computations of the one-year end product of a turbine, but mean figures can supply utile counsel to interior decorators and designers. In moderately blowy countries ( mean wind velocity of 6m/s ) the expected end product from 1 kilowatts installed is about 2500kWh yearly. The cost per kilowatt installed varies well by maker and size of machine with an declarative bracket of ?2,500-?5,000. With a lifetime of more than 20 old ages, wind turbines can salvage money if design and planning are carried out in a robust manner. Building-integrated air current turbines are get downing to be a world in the UK, but possible undertakings may confront troubles with obtaining be aftering permission. There are a few illustrations now of permitted development rights for certain rooftop turbines in some local councils. A figure of horizontal axis devices specifically designed for edifice integrating are now available commercially, holding design and dependability parametric quantities relevant to the urban context. Building-mounted perpendicular axis devices are under development. At present, turbines installed near edifices, every bit good as community installings for groups of edifices, should be regarded as the larger air current energy beginning related to edifices, when they contribute to the C emanations from these premises utilizing ‘private wire ‘ webs. However, the part of several building-integrated turbines in a development is likely to go important in the following few old ages.